Abstract

This paper looks at recent trends in the employment of recently graduated college students and proposes an experiment to increase the likelihood of employment success. While analyzing the employment process that a recent college graduate must go through, certain behavioral biases revealed themselves: college students don’t know what jobs to apply for their major, they don’t know how many and for how long they should be applying for jobs, and they are also emotional fragile and are prone to discouragement due to rejection. To fix these problems, students need to be shown a survey with the employment data from the previous year’s class so that current students know how long to apply for and where they should apply based on their major. In addition to the survey, students would be given advice from a mentor who recently graduated and had employment success. This mentor would provide emotional encouragement, as well as tips on how to get employed. Students will also be provided with short videos of the mentor as well so that they can watch the videos on their own time. Interventions like these have been proven to increase the likelihood of employment success. To determine if and how well these interventions work, a sample size of college students would be given the resources, and another group of students would not be given the resources. Comparing the results will give an accurate conclusion.

Intro

College seniors and recent graduates face the challenge of obtaining a job before or shortly after they graduate. However, a set of behavioral biases often hinder them from getting the job they desire. This paper identifies these biases and proposes proven behavioral interventions that can increase the probability of recent college graduate employment success.

A behavioral “journey map” for employment consists of several steps. A person has to meet the education and experience requirements, have an adequate resume, meet for interviews, give a compelling reason why they should be hired, and so much more. During this process, there are many points during which behavioral biases can create bottlenecks. This paper focuses on two. First, recent college graduates must identify job openings that are a good match. Second, recent college graduates must persist in the face of rejection. Recent college graduates are an important part of the pool of willing and able workers because of their newly acquired skills from their degree. They have a college education and are willing to fill all of the entry-level positions in companies of all industries. However, recent college graduates still decide to give up too soon in their search for a job and are instead accepting positions that require no college education at all. In 2020, The Federal Reserve Bank of New York reported that 41% of recent college graduates are working at a job that doesn’t require a college degree. The Federal Reserve Bank also found that, in 2022, unemployment rates for recent graduates are higher than the national average of all workers.

After the pandemic hit in 2020, unemployment rose to an all-time high because companies could no longer afford to hire or even keep the workers that they had. The result of this was a staggeringly low amount of open positions for recent graduates. Unemployment for adults aged 20-24 rose to 23% in May of 2020, which is double what it was the year before. This led to extreme job-seeking anxiety as recent college graduates continued to lose hope of being employed. “I’m honestly kinda scared,” said recent USC graduate Hannah Grogin when she was asked about beginning to look for a job in May of 2021. Hannah knew that “there’s just a lot more to fear about not being able to get a job because of the pandemic.” This interview occurred when the unemployment rate for recent graduates dropped to 10% from 23%. Recent college graduates haven’t updated their view of the job market– this means the next class of graduates may face a similar level of anxiety due to the persistence of the older model of the job market. While it may seem like the market is not in these graduates’ favor, the job market for college graduates has become stronger. According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers, “This is an even hotter period for recruiters than they thought it was going to be…,” said Josh Kahn, assistant director of research and public policy, in May of 2022. As of June 2022, ZipRecruiter reported that there are around two job openings for every one person and that companies are lowering their experience requirements. If the market is strong, why are some college graduates not finding jobs and are becoming discouraged?

It is especially important that recent college graduates do not get discouraged when looking for a job because of the consequences that it can cause in their future search for employment. Studies have found that “The earnings of displaced workers do not catch up to those of their nondisplaced counterparts for nearly 20 years.” This unemployment spell has also been found to affect future home ownership and the total lifetime earnings of an individual.

In the next section of the paper, I am going to lay out what the job search process looks like for a recent college graduate, and then I am going to highlight the main behavioral biases that are hindering their success. Job search persistence is absolutely crucial for recent college graduates, and there are nudges that can provide them with the help they need.

Student Job Search

After the pandemic, which “was unusual in the severity and speed with which people lost jobs and entire sectors diminished,” the economy adapted, and sectoral shifts occurred, which grew industries that were less hurt. This means that these graduates now have to navigate “a complex labor market…that individual workers have to make countless decisions—big and small—about what kind of work they want to do and what they need to learn to achieve their career goals and earn a living.” It’s useful to break down the job search process into steps in order to account “for the complexity of human decision-making, we can design programs that work with human nature, not against it, benefiting countless lives and livelihoods.”

The first step students usually take when they first start looking for a job is to create their resume, which has a detailed list of their accomplishments and work experiences. For students who don’t know how to create an effective resume, many colleges offer free resources that provide students with effective guidance. However, students may not always be aware that these resources exist and can become discouraged by their failure to create a resume. Despite this possibility, this basic step is usually not the root of the students’ problems.

The next step is to develop and adopt a job search strategy. This includes finding open positions, applying to enough of them given the chances of success, and identifying the ones for which one is a good match. In terms of finding open positions, events such as career fairs and resources such as the career office can be extremely helpful. If students choose not to use these resources, this is where problems start to arise. Second, one of the main reasons why students stop looking for a job is because they are applying for the wrong positions. In a survey conducted by employment firm GradStaff that asked what the recent graduates’ top two concerns were when finding a job, more than 75% of respondents answered, “I don’t know what positions are for me,” and the second most common response at 46% was “I don’t know what to do with my major.” This survey is an indication that students need to be educated as to which specific positions they should be applying for, given their major. Even if they are applying for the right positions, they need to be reassured that they are doing the right thing.

Third, applying to the right number of jobs involves understanding the probability of success, which students might not know. According to the survey from GradStaff, respondents looked for a job for an average of 3.6 months and applied to just 23 jobs in total. That means that the respondents were applying for fewer than two positions per week. In order to increase the likelihood of getting a job, these graduates need to be sending out way more applications. Indeed.com’s editorial team published an article in 2021 recommending that seniors in college should be looking for positions for up to 20 hours per week. They recommend applying to up to 15 jobs throughout the week as well. Therefore, students need to be spending more time applying for the right jobs given their major.

Assuming the job search strategy is good, a person still has to have the persistence to continue applying until success is achieved. Graduates still need to be persistent despite facing rejection or simply having too much confidence to believe they will receive a job offer very quickly. Rejection can be difficult and harmful to job seekers because it can shatter their confidence levels and reduce their willingness to remain persistent. Rejection can especially be difficult for those who are overconfident because they did not expect any form of rejection.

We can assume that rejection of a job a person thought they would get is similar to that of losing a job a person already had because, in both situations, the people thought that they lost something that was theirs. Two professors at the University of British Columbia found that people who lose their job often face “denial, anger, bargaining, [and] depression” before they can accept what they lost.

In the next section of this paper, I prove interventions for the main behavioral biases of the student job search process: students applying for the wrong positions, students not applying for a long enough period of time, and students letting their emotions get the best of them.

Proposed Interventions

To help graduates apply for positions that are relevant to their major, a simple survey can nudge them in the right direction. Using data from the previous year’s class, we can attempt to predict what the process will look like for the new class; If we actively market and promote this data to them, the new class will be able to have an idea of where they should be applying. The survey that would be sent out to the previous year’s graduates would ask them what their major was and where they got a job. The survey would also show the number of people who got jobs and where, to make it clear which major has a higher likelihood of getting a job at a certain company. This survey from a recent graduating class should be encouraging to the current year class. A behavioral intervention experiment found that “Summarizing the data from 47 experimentally or quasi-experimentally evaluated job search interventions, we found that the odds of obtaining employment were 2.67 times higher for job seekers participating in job search interventions compared to job seekers in the control group, who did not participate in such intervention programs.” While all job search interventions are different, this intervention should increase the likelihood of obtaining employment. This intervention should also ease anxiety among the students because their job success becomes less uncertain to them: they know they aren’t facing significant trouble because the previous class could have faced the same thing and were still successful; they know if the job market for them is strong or not because of this. If the market is bad and the survey results do happen to be discouraging to them, the intervention for emotional encouragement becomes even more important.

To encourage graduates to keep being persistent in their job search and not give up over a short period of time, this survey would also ask the last class how long it took them to get their jobs. A study found that “unemployed youngsters who possess high levels of psychological capital also perceive more control over job search, which is directly connected with their job search intention. Notably, psychological capital seems to be a more beneficial resource for keeping unemployed youngsters engaged in job search in an adverse economic context.” This additional information that the survey provides is important psychological capital because it addresses the issue of students giving up their search after a certain period of time. In other words, the survey’s information would provide more control to the students in their search because they know what to expect. This would then be shown to the new class so that they can also draw conclusions on what they should do next based on how long they have been applying for the job they want. This year’s class may be shocked at how long it took some people with certain majors to get the jobs they wanted and therefore keep applying for jobs instead of giving up.

Alongside providing these students with statistics on how the previous class did, these students also need some form of emotional encouragement. A study by professors from universities in Hong Kong shows that “career-oriented mentoring was…significantly positively related to a number of promotions received and career satisfaction.” The intervention that these colleges would provide for their students would be bringing back a former student that would empathize with the students, and the class would be able to relate to him or her. This mentor would also provide their own personal guidance and how they were able to get a job by the time they graduated. Instead of a physical or live mentor to guide students, videos recorded by previous graduates could also be more effective because of the convenience of being able to watch them anytime. A survey that evaluated the help of online contacts in obtaining employment found that “based on 1322 telephone interviews with unemployed individuals in Germany, we [found] that online social support drives job search behavior. Our results show[ed] that social support derived from new information and communication technology counteract[ed] the adverse effect of being unemployed to a certain degree.”

Potential Experiment

A potential experiment needs to be outlined to see if the proposed interventions would work. In this experiment, a randomized control and experimental group of students need to be used in order to reduce room for error: a non-randomized control and experimental group can yield people with characteristics that may drive the outcome of the experiment instead of the intervention itself.

The control group would be 500 current students who would not receive any form of intervention, and the experimental group would be 500 current students who would. Both of these groups of students are going to be asked follow-up questions throughout their job search process to determine the progression of their success. The sample size of students should be based on the overall class size of the college where the experiment is being performed at. For example, at a college like Case Western Reserve University, where the class size is just over 1400, a sample size of 500 people each for the control and experimental group would be significant. Of this sample size, a small percentage of these people can be unaccounted for in the total experiment’s sample size because of attrition: people deciding not to participate, people getting sick for a long period of time, people lying when following up to see if they have gotten job offers yet, and more reasons why they don’t end up following the all the rules of the experiment that they should. This should be a very small percentage of people due to the appropriate sample size and shouldn’t affect the results in a way where the conclusion would be skewed. Note that these are estimates only. In reality, the appropriate sample size for this experimental design would require power calculations based on the estimated size of the experimental effect.

The next step in this experiment is determining the key questions that need to be asked in the follow-up and how often this follow-up should occur. The key variables of this experiment that should be asked of these students are: What is your major, how many job offers have you gotten, what type of job is it, how long did it take you to get an offer, and how long did it take you to get an offer that you are going to accept. This follow-up will be asked of the students every two weeks to get an update on their progress in finding a job. If we don’t ask this frequently, the experiment would be vulnerable to recall bias: students forgetting information that needs to be recorded in the follow-up. This survey requires that we trust that their answers to the questions are truthful. Asking to send proof of job offers can cause problems as some people may find it tedious or just simply not want to. They also may not be legally allowed to share certain information in that job offer as well.

Conclusion

In this paper, we determined the main behavioral biases that are hindering college students from getting a job right out of college. With the proposed interventions of providing data and a mentor to these students, we can significantly increase the likelihood of employment success. This is really important because we can apply these interventions to colleges all across the United States, which would have a significant impact on reducing employment for young adults with higher education. These interventions could even be applied to graduate school students who are also about to finish school and are looking for a job.

In the future, I hope to collaborate with the University I attend, Case Western Reserve University, to conduct the proposed experiment for my graduating class to see just how helpful our behavioral interventions are. If successful, this study could be applied in a much larger context of societal development; mentors having an emotional impact on students and possibly increasing their productivity is very useful information because mentors can also be used– in contexts other than employment–to increase efficiency in other areas. Similarly to providing the data to students, providing data to workers in a company that shows how others in their positions were able to be promoted and earn more may increase worker productivity, morale, and more. In conclusion, there are many applications for research like this where we can behavioral influence people to make better choices and be more productive.

Works Cited

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About the author

Aryan Mishra

Aryan is a first-year Economics student at Case Western Reserve University. He is interested in concentrating in Behavioral Economics so he can learn more about how psychology and human behavior can be used to solve economic problems.

The post Increasing College Graduate Employment Success appeared first on Exploratio Journal.

Abstract

This experiment explores how disclosing a mental disorder affects people’s perceptions of the target on a range of thirteen traits such as intelligence and agreeableness. It is hypothesized that disclosing a mental disorder can induce lower ratings on the targets’ abilities to perform well in the workplace, intelligence, and how calmly they could handle a given situation. When evaluating a total of twenty-eight responses across two Google Forms, no statistically conclusive evidence was found between those who disclosed a mental disorder and those who did not. Research participants read four vignettes narrated by the target (the actual vignettes can be found in Appendix A and B). Research participants were either assigned a condition where the target disclosed a mental order or a condition where the target did not disclose a mental disorder in the four vignettes. After reading each of the vignettes, research participants rated each of the targets on thirteen traits. Four major limitations could have affected the accuracy of the experiment and results: a small sample size; no preliminary testing on the content of the vignettes; using a convenient sample; no testing to see how the phrasing of the questions could have affected the research participants’ answers.

The Influence of Disclosing Mental Disorders on Impression Formation

Have you ever wondered if disclosing a mental disorder would be viewed negatively by a friend or employee? Consider this example: James is debating whether to disclose his anxiety disorder to his boss. On the one hand, he feels this information could help his boss understand his work style better, but on the other hand, he feels his boss may think he will have difficulty keeping up with the pace of the workplace. The following experiment was conducted to determine whether disclosing a mental disorder (such as ADD, Anxiety, Bipolar) in any environment negatively affects how people view the individual disclosing a mental disorder. Mental disorders, or mental illnesses, are occasional or chronic conditions that have an impact on one’s feelings, moods, behavior, and thinking (Mental Disorders, n.d.).

Television dramas, celebrities, and the younger generation are raising awareness around mental health and are helping lessen the stigma surrounding mental health (Spector, 2020). However, even though there is more awareness now about mental disorders, (such as attention deficit disorder (ADD), bipolar disorder, anxiety disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)) individuals may still be unclear whether it would serve their best interest to self-disclose their mental disorders.

Self-disclosure is the process of revealing information to someone else intentionally or unintentionally. The information disclosed can vary in depth. For example, one example of self-disclosure may be revealing the name of one’s favorite color while another example may be sharing one’s biggest regret in life. An example of verbal self-disclosure could be sharing a phobia while an example of non-verbal self-disclosure could be a visible tattoo. Some benefits of self-disclosure include creating stronger bonds with the individual(s) one is self-disclosing, getting one to trust an individual more, greater life satisfaction, and better cooperation (Self-Disclosure, n.d.). The hypothesis for this study is that disclosing a mental disorder would lead to lower ratings in performance in the workplace, intelligence, and handling a situation calmly.

The decision to self-disclose a mental illness may vary based on the industry. In professions that rely more heavily on networking where traits such as Empathy, Authenticity, Kindness, extroversion, and Agreeableness were rated more highly in a high self-disclosure format, self-disclosing a mental disorder may be beneficial.

Past experiments conducted on the topic of impression formation and mental disorders online influenced many aspects of the experiment discussed in the rest of the paper. In one experiment, research participants viewed targets’ interviews and rated the targets on openness, conscientiousness, agreeableness, extroversion, neuroticism, physical attractiveness, and likeability (Fiedler et al., 2004). The target, or narrator, of the vignette, decides whether or not to disclose that they have a mental disorder. Some of the targets had personality disorders which are a type of mental disorders (Personality Disorders, n.d.). It was found that research participants rated those who displayed traits of paranoid, schizotypal, dependent, and avoidant PDs as less extroverted and less likable (Fiedler et al.). On the other hand, research participants rated targets who displayed histrionic PD (symptoms include a strong need for attention) as more extroverted and more likable (Fiedler et al (Fiedler et al.). Rating the targets on multiple personality traits inspired many of the questions in the experiment discussed in this paper.

Another experiment explored the impact on impression formation of disclosing a speech disorder or a mental disorder in the context of employment. In this experiment, research participants were presented with pictures and audio recordings of targets who were applying for a job at a university. Research participants were assigned a scenario with disclosure of either a speech or mental disorder. The scenarios contained no disclosure, visually implicit disclosure, or verbally explicit disclosure. Research participants were told to rate the targets’ characteristics after witnessing the scenarios. It was found that research participants viewed a speech disorder more favorably than a mental disorder in the context of employability (Fisher, 2007). Some factors people consider when deciding whether to disclose a mental disorder to their superior in the workplace are their gender, work setting, diagnosis, and emotional support in the workplace (Susman, 2021).

Inspired by past research that explored disclosing a mental disorder in the workplace, the following experiment further explored how disclosing a mental disorder affected people’s perceptions of the target without giving them the context of employment. After reading a vignette, research participants were asked to rate the targets on traits related to performance in the workplace. However, the purpose of rating the targets was not disclosed. As previously mentioned, before conducting this experiment, it was hypothesized that disclosing a mental disorder would lead to lower ratings in performance in the workplace, intelligence, and handling a situation calmly. The responses showed no significant results. By evaluating a total of twenty-eight responses across two Google Forms, no conclusive evidence was found between those who disclosed a mental disorder and those who did not.

In the context of how one would regard the individual disclosing a mental disorder after they disclose it: a negative perception would be quantified by lower ratings in categories such as performance in the workplace, agreeableness, openness, and various other traits. It can be beneficial to know whether or not people develop a more negative perception of an individual’s skills or traits when they disclose a mental disorder for a multitude of reasons. For example, the conclusions of the research could help an individual determine whether it would be beneficial to disclose their mental disorder to an employer, colleague, or friend.

Emotional self-disclosure, disclosing emotions and emotional experiences, can encourage empathy and trust while helping the individual disclosing a mental disorder cope with stress and burnout (Empathy at Work, 2022). Research found benefits of both: positive and negative self-disclosure. Surprisingly, negative self-disclosure is preferred and can have a positive influence (Zhang et al, n.d.). An example of negative self-disclosure could be “I am really bad at math” or “I struggle to manage my time well.” When disclosing negative information, the receiver may perceive the individual disclosing a mental disorder as honest and attribute other positive descriptions to the individual disclosing a mental disorder (Zhang et al, n.d.). An example of positive self-disclosure could be “I am really good at math.” When one discloses positive information, they may be perceived as dishonest since the information disclosed may seem to boast (Zhang et al, n.d.).

Self-disclosure can also be used as a tactic to make an individual seem more authentic. For example, someone in a position of power may self-disclose to employees- in both difficult and non-difficult situations- to show their ‘human side,’ which can compel employees to rally behind them (Zhang et al, n.d.). Similarly, in certain circumstances, it might be beneficial to disclose a detail that may seem ‘negative’ to create stronger bonds. To restate, it was hypothesized that disclosing a mental disorder would lead to lower ratings in performance in the workplace, intelligence, and handling a situation calmly. However, the responses do not confirm this hypothesis. Thus, it is important to understand some of the flaws in the experiment to gather more conclusive data.

Research Participants

Method

The forms used for the experiment were circulated via social media where followers viewed an Instagram story that explained the social experiment on impression formation. On the same slide, research participants were informed that their participation included filling out a form that would take 10-15 minutes to complete. The link given to research participants randomly assigned which of the two links they would complete. Social media seemed to be the best way to distribute the form given the time frame; on Instagram, the form would be shared instantly and the research participants would all have the same incentive: helping who they followed on social media.

Administration and Random Assignment

The link to access the Google Form was circulated online via Instagram. Research participants were randomly assigned one of two forms.

The Targets

Between the four targets in the vignettes, there was one young male (8), one young female (17), one older male (68), and one older female (42). The ages and genders of the targets were deliberately selected to gather insight into a diverse set of targets.

Experimental Stimuli and How They Were Comprised

The form had nine parts. The order of the questions in the individual parts was randomized. One section asked questions about the research participants’ demographics. After the demographics portion, a vignette was described and then the research participants were asked to provide their opinions of the target as an open-ended question. Then, the research participants were asked to score the targets on a scale of one to seven on thirteen personality traits/qualities. The thirteen traits were empathy, authenticity, kindness, extroversion, intelligence, easily frustrated, openness, ability to perform well in the workplace, conscientiousness, neuroticism (worrying frequently and easily slipping into anxiety and depression), agreeableness, selflessness, trustworthiness, and how calmly/well the target would be able to handle a stressful situation (Pappas & Biggs, 2021). The same format was repeated for the other three vignettes. Open-ended responses were featured to collect reasoning and thought into why research participants selected certain ratings.

Format of the Forms

Each form included four paragraph-long vignettes which disclosed the targets’ names, the targets’ ages, and a problem or accomplishment they encounter[ed] in the span of three days. The vignettes were written in the first person, with the target as the narrator. Across the four vignettes, the order of the information disclosed was the same. The only difference between the two forms was that in one form the target disclosed a mental disorder after they disclosed their age, and in the other form, the target did not disclose a mental disorder. The four mental disorders disclosed were bipolar disorder, anxiety disorder, ADD, and PTSD.

Results

Surprisingly, the two overall means between the high and low self-disclosure forms were not significantly different. By conducting statistical tests, it delineated that there was no statistical difference between the two overall means of the two forms. As shown in the table below, the only marginally statistically significant T-value was found in the vignette disclosing anxiety disorder: 1.811. If people did have different ratings it was not caused by the disclosure of a mental disorder. Thus, no conclusive evidence was found that disclosing a mental disorder affects people’s ratings of the thirteen traits listed above. Interestingly, when the target disclosed that he had PTSD, research participants rated him higher on the scale of calmly handling a stressful situation. In the three other vignettes, it was the opposite for this trait. The greatest difference between the means of vignettes was in the anxiety disorder vignette where the target disclosed he had anxiety. However, these differences were not statistically significant, but showed a slight trend in the data.

Discussion

Due to methodological errors in this preliminary experiment, no conclusive data was found. The results would be more indicative and conclusive with a larger sample size. Given the amount of content on the internet that describes the debate on whether or not to disclose a mental illness, this is an important issue that needs to be studied and there is still a need for conclusive data on this subject.

As an article from Psychology Today also notes, the stigma surrounding mental disorders can cause individuals to hesitate to disclose a mental disorder due to not wanting to be labeled negatively or a fear of rejection (Susman, 2021). One article written in 2013 disclosed that 70% of the global population with a mental disorder does not receive treatment (Thornicroft et al., 2013). Some factors which prevented individuals from receiving treatment for a mental disorder were a lack of knowledge about mental disorders, ignorance surrounding accessing treatment, and stigma attached to mental disorders (Thornicroft et al.). Similarly, data collected by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration in 2020 found that 46.2% of adults in the U.S. with a mental disorder receive mental health services (Mental Illness, 2022). That means that over half the adults with a mental disorder in the U.S. did not receive treatment. There is both a lack of education and misinformation surrounding mental disorders which can cause misconceptions and lack of treatment (Shrivastava et al., 2012). Therefore, educating individuals on mental disorders can help eliminate stigma. Understanding people’s attitudes towards mental disorders can be beneficial to understanding specific causes of stigma which is why gathering data on this subject is crucial.

Limitations

This preliminary study had four major limitations. First, the research participants in this experiment were part of a convenient sample. Since all research participants were gathered through a message on social media, the motive- of the research participants who opted to complete the form circulated via Instagram- might have tampered with the accuracy of scores they assigned to targets. In contrast, using the data of randomly selected participants who are not incentivized to complete the form in order to assist someone they know personally might produce more authentic scores. Second, there was no preliminary testing to uncover any preconceptions related to the targets’ names, mental disorders, and targets’ problems described in the vignettes. This might have led to certain research participants answering the questions with a different perception which may have affected the results. Third, due to the time and resource constraints in which this experiment was designed and conducted, only a small number-twenty-eight participants, to be exact- of research participants filled out the survey. Thus, the confidence level in the certainty of data is less than ideal.

Tables

References

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Fiedler, E. R., Turkheimer, E., Oltmanns, T. F., & Friedman, J. N. (2004). Perceptions of people with personality disorders based on thin slices of behavior. Journal of Research in Personality, 38(3), 216-229.

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Appendix A

Vignettes Given to Research Participants in the First Form Where the Target Disclosed a Mental Disorder in the Same Sequence as the Form

My name is Anna. I am 17 years old and have bipolar disorder. Yesterday, I was jogging in my local park and when walking to my car, a biker crashed into me. Quickly, an ambulance came and I went to the hospital. I am a competitive pianist and have a competition in a week so I was nervous and needed to make sure I was okay and could recover quickly. I got an x-ray and luckily I just had bad bruising. Since I was in so much pain, I missed my classes today but emailed my teachers to make sure I would not miss any material. I now am going to try and finish my work. Tomorrow, I will meet with my teacher to discuss whether or not I should compete.

Figure 1: Anna’s Vignette (Bipolar Disorder)

My name is Max. I am 8 years old and have an anxiety disorder. I have a soccer game after school in 2 days and have been practicing a lot to prepare. I feel pretty good about my progress but am working on my free kicked as I missed one during the last game. After soccer practice today, I have to go home and get ready for my friend’s birthday party. I bought him a gift two days ago and hope that he likes it. I also have another birthday party after my soccer game in two days, but I feel that I might be too tired to go after the game. Well, I will see how it goes.

Figure 2: Max’s Vignette (Anxiety Disorder)

My name is Jane. I am 42 years old. I am a professeur and have ADD. I just finished grading my students’ tests and am now having a cup of coffee. I did not expect this week to be so hectic but luckily it was a good type of hectic. Two days ago, I received an email from the school board with the news that I earned a promotion. I hesitated to open the letter as letters from the school board do not often come with good news, but was happy to feel that my work was being acknowledged. Then, yesterday, I attended my sister’s wedding. It was nice to be able to spend time with my family after a while.

Figure 3: Jane’s Vignette (Attention Deficit Disorder)

My name is Ted. I am 68 years old. I am a real estate agent and have PTSD. The last 3 days have given me new insights. 2 days ago I was at a work conference in the morning and then flew to an awards ceremony for my colleague in the afternoon. Yesterday, I flew to Hawaii with my family for a much-needed family vacation. On the way to the airport, I saw a car crash which made me feel very nervous. In fact, I almost stopped in the middle of the road. Luckily, I was able to calm myself down and continue driving.

Figure 4: Ted’s Vignette (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder)

Appendix B

Vignettes Given to Research Participants in the First Form Where the Target Did Not Disclose a Mental Disorder in the Same Sequence as the Form

My name is Anna. I am 17 years old. Yesterday, I was jogging in my local park and when walking to my car, a biker crashed into me. Quickly, an ambulance came and I went to the hospital. I am a competitive pianist and have a competition in a week so I was nervous and needed to make sure I was okay and could recover quickly. I got an x-ray and luckily I just had bad bruising. Since I was in so much pain, I missed my classes today but emailed my teachers to make sure I would not miss any material. I now am going to try and finish my work. Tomorrow, I will meet with my teacher to discuss whether or not I should compete.

Figure 1: Anna’s Vignette (Bipolar Disorder)

My name is Max. I am 8 years old. I have a soccer game after school in 2 days and have been practicing a lot to prepare. I feel pretty good about my progress but am working on my free kicked as I missed one during the last game. After soccer practice today, I have to go home and get ready for my friends birthday party. I bought him a gift two days ago and hope that he likes it. I also have another birthday party after my soccer game in two days, but I feel that I might be too tired to go after the game. Well, I will see how it goes.

Figure 2: Max’s Vignette (Anxiety Disorder)

My name is Jane. I am 42 years old. I am a professeur. I just finished grading my students’ tests and am now having a cup of coffee. I did not expect this week to be so hectic but luckily it was a good type of hectic. Two days ago, I received an email from the school board with the news that I earned a promotion. I hesitated to open the letter as letters from the school board do not often come with good news, but was happy to feel that my work was being acknowledged. Then, yesterday, I attended my sister’s wedding. It was nice to be able to spend time with my family after a while.

Figure 3: Jane’s Vignette (Attention Deficit Disorder)

My name is Ted. I am 68 years old. I am a real estate agent. The last 3 days have given me new insights. 2 days ago I was at a work conference in the morning and then flew to an awards ceremony for my colleague in the afternoon. Yesterday, I flew to Hawaii with my family for a much-needed family vacation. On the way to the airport, I saw a car crash which made me feel very nervous. In fact, I almost stopped in the middle of the road. Luckily, I was able to calm myself down and continue driving.

Figure 4: Ted’s Vignette (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder)

About the author

Riya Daga

Riya is a senior at Horace Mann. She is a semi-pro racecar driver who is also passionate about skincare, the business of Formula 1, entrepreneurship, and ultimate frisbee. She lives in Englewood Cliffs, NJ and loves playing Connect Four and cards.

The post The Influence of Disclosing Mental Disorders on Impression Formation appeared first on Exploratio Journal.

Abstract

Many treatments and therapies have been developed for treating cancer; however, these treatments suffer from serious side effects. Cancer vaccines are an innovation which manipulates the patient’s own immune system to specifically target their own cancer.  The development of such therapies is critical in curing and preventing cancer. Tremendous research on cancer vaccines have been conducted over years, and several cancer specific vaccines have been approved by FDA since 1990. Even though an effective and universal cancer vaccine for all cancers does not currently exist, the recent progress on driver antigen cancer vaccines and targeted immunotherapy including CAR T-cell therapy and checkpoint inhibitor therapy show great promise. This review analyzes the feasibility of cancer vaccines and reviews some of the most recent advancements in this field.

Introduction

Cancer is a detrimental disease that has been recorded in humans as early as 1500 BCE. While there are plenty of treatment options for cancer patients, to this day no universal cure has been discovered. In 2021, more than 10 million people succumbed to cancer, with estimates of even more deaths in 2022. [28] Without any significant cure for this disease, millions of more lives will be taken each year. Cancer research is important as it helps doctors identify, cure, and prevent cancer, allowing people around the globe to have safer, longer, and higher quality lives. By understanding the biological processes of cancer, researchers can identify patterns which assist in developing ways to protect people from developing cancer and treating cancer patients. This will ultimately result in decreased occurrences of cancer and mortality. With the help of the research funding (USD 6.4 billion in 2020 alone), there have been many breakthroughs in cancer treatment. [2] One of these breakthroughs is called targeted immunotherapy, which is also known as the cancer vaccine. [3] This therapy uses the patient’s own immune system to destroy cancer. Although no complete cure has been fully developed, these cancer vaccines have been heavily researched and are used in patients. With cancer vaccines being one of the most prominent and potential cures to cancer in the future, this review briefly discusses the effects, processes, and results of cancer vaccines.

What is Cancer?

Cancer is a disease caused by an uncontrolled division of abnormal cells in parts of the body. There are many types of cancers such as breast, lung, colon, skin cancer, etc. As of 2022, breast cancer is the most common cancer in the US [12] whereas lung cancer is the most common cancer in China. [13] Statistics show that about 60% of people who are diagnosed with metastatic breast cancer also develop lesions in the lungs. [26] Metastatic cancers are when cancerous cells spread to another part of the body, which is commonly found in breast, colon, kidney, lung, among other cancers. An example of the metastasis can be seen in kidney cancer, where the cancer spreads to adrenal gland, bone, brain, liver, and lung. 

Although cancer can develop and spread to different organs within the body, they share some similar symptoms such as fatigue, weight loss or gain, swelling, unusual bleeding or bruising, headaches, among many other symptoms. [34] The most severe symptoms usually are experienced by bone and pancreatic cancer patients. [33]

In figure one, it shows that patients that are diagnosed with brain cancer usually have the lowest 5-year survival rates (12.8%) whereas testis cancer has the higher survival rate (97%) in England. [9] Interestingly, some cancer patients can live with their cancer as long as they continue treatment such as melanoma, breast, prostate, testicular, cervical, and thyroid cancer patients as the 5-year survival rates are highest.

It is scientifically accepted that the universal cause of cancer is damage to genetic material i.e. DNA. Chemical disruption of the nucleotides that hold the DNA chains together results in genetic mutations once the DNA replicates itself. Loss or rearrangement of these nucleotides alters the genetic information contained in the DNA i.e. mutations. As can be seen in figure two, double strand breaks can also cause rearrangement of the chromosome structure, which could disrupt a gene and ultimately lead to mutation(s). However, these mutations can be avoided if the DNA repair system recognizes the DNA damage as abnormal structures and repairs it before the round of replication. [15] Alterations in DNA sequence result with improper cell cycle maintenance and functions. The sequence of DNA is important for expressing critical proteins in and on the cells of the body. When the sequence changes, that directly impacts the function of these proteins. Depending on where this damage occurs and which protein is affected, the function of the cell changes and can lead to developing cancerous cells. 

There are a few exogenous factors that may cause DNA damage, and eventually cancer. These include lifestyle habits, such as, but not limited to, smoking, unhealthy diet, or exposure to toxic chemicals. DNA damage resulting from continuous smoking increases the chances for developing lung cancer, which can then spread to other parts of the body. [23] An unhealthy diet could lead a patient into obesity, which is a risk factor for various cancers such as colon, breast, kidney, etc. Maintaining a healthy body weight and also reducing alcohol intake can lower the risk of developing these cancers. [7] Exposure to heavy metals such as cadmium, arsenic, and nickel [18] (from factories or industrial productions), asbestos (aging and unmaintained buildings), and ultraviolet light (from the sun) can also cause damage to DNA in cells, leading to various cancers. There are many dangerous carcinogens such as PAH, N-nitrosamines, aromatic amines, 1,3-butadiene, benzene, aldehydes, and ethylene oxide which can cause damage to DNA.  These carcinogens can be found in natural resources such as UV Light or viruses, or man-made waste like automobile fumes and cigarette smoke, and can cause mutations to the DNA, increasing the likelihood of cancer diseases. Some cancers can also be hereditary where one or both parents carry altered genes and carry that on to their offspring(s). Most common hereditary cancers are breast and colon. [37]

The main effect cancer has on the body is weakening of the immune system. For example, leukemia, lymphomas, and multiple myelomas spread into the bone marrow, outcompeting with the bone marrow cells for space and nutrients. [42] When this happens, the bone marrow won’t be able to generate white blood cells to fight infections in the body. Without a strong immune system, there is no protection against illnesses, leaving patients very vulnerable to other diseases. Not only do blood cancers affect the immune system, but also solid tumors. A tumor is a solid mass of tissue consisting of abnormal cell groups. Solid tumors grow on bones (sarcoma), skin (melanoma), lung (carcinoma), and other organs and glands. Malignant cells from the tumors avoid immune elimination through loss of antigenicity (ability to interact with immune cells and antibodies) and/or loss of immunogenicity (ability to provoke immune response). [24] The degree to which the tumor overrides the immune system on tumor type and lesion. 

Many treatments have been developed to help cure or slow the progression of cancer. The most common treatments include surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation. [27] Surgery is the physical removal of a solid tumor/mass from the patient. Side effects of surgery include blood clots, bleeding, infections, damage of other organs, and reaction to drugs. [32] Chemotherapy is the use of drugs to kill cancer cells. Chemotherapy has negative side effects in which the immune system becomes weak, and infections are more probable. This is because chemotherapy is meant to kill fast growing cells, but they could also accidently affect healthy cells that are also fast growing. Radiation therapy uses x-rays, particles, or radioactive seeds to destroy the cancer. Radiation slows down the abnormal growth rate of the cancer cells. Side effects of radiation include fatigue, hair loss, memory or concentration problems, nausea, skin changes, and blurry vision. Most recently, targeted immunotherapy has been developed and considered to be the “cancer vaccine” for patients. This therapy focuses on using a person’s own immune system to fight cancer. The most prominent immunotherapies use CAR T-cell therapy and checkpoint inhibitors to fuel the production of cancer fighting cells to attack cancer cells. [41]

What Are Vaccines?

A vaccine is a substance used to stimulate the production of antibodies to provide long term immunity against a disease. The most common types of vaccines are live-attenuated vaccines, inactivated vaccines, and toxoid vaccines. Live-attenuated vaccines are created by using a weakened form of germ that causes the disease. These vaccines are similar to the natural infection, so it provides a strong and long lasting immune response. A limitation to this type of vaccine is people with weak immune systems, chronic health problems, and organ transplant recipients may not be eligible to receive such vaccines. Live-attenuated vaccines are used for various diseases including measles, rotavirus, smallpox, chickenpox, and yellow fever. 

Inactivated vaccines use the deactivated version of the germ that causes the disease. The inactivated vaccines are not as strong or long lasting as the live-attenuated vaccines. This type of vaccine is a safer alternative for those with weak immune systems and chronic health problems since they are weaker than the live-attenuated vaccines. Booster shots are required for inactivated vaccines to ensure that the patient gets longer immunity against diseases. Inactivated vaccines are used for hepatitis A, flu, polio, and rabies. Toxoid vaccines use a toxin made by the germ that causes the disease. It creates immunity against the germs that cause the disease, but not the disease itself. Similar to the inactivated vaccine, it also requires booster shots for an ongoing immunity against diseases. Toxoid vaccines are used to protect against diphtheria and tetanus. [40]

With the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, a new type of vaccine has been developed and globally used to prevent the spread of this deadly virus and maintain the lives of billions. These vaccines are mRNA based, which means inactivated regions of proteins from the virus are genetically encoded to be expressed on the surface of healthy cells. Once these proteins are detected by the immune cells, an immune response is generated. The main difference compared to the vaccine types above is that these proteins remain on the surface of the cells as long as the cells are in the body. [29] This method has been researched for more than a decade but has only been used in humans since the pandemic outbreak. Given that this technology is still in its infancy, there are many areas of development to increase the efficiency and longevity of mRNA vaccines.

Innovating Vaccines against Cancer

Cancer has always seemed to be the greatest enigmas of the modern day as no universal cure has been developed. The idea of a cancer vaccine – not a direct cure, but a prevention against cancer – is an absolute breakthrough as it has the potential to drastically decrease the mortality and infection of cancer throughout the globe. Unlike the types of vaccine mentioned in the last section, cancer vaccines take advantage of proteins found in or on cancer cells. [41]

The progress to the current cancer vaccines in early trials has come a long way. Immunotherapy was first developed in 1891 by William Coley, also known as the “father of immunotherapy.” Coley attempted to leverage the immune system through injecting patients with bacteria or bacterial products. His belief was that forcefully activating the immune system will generate a response against inoperable cancers. While his approach was not entirely understood or accepted by professionals and healthcare providers at the time, he was able to treat about 1000 cases of bone and soft-tissue sarcoma where patients’ tumors decreased in size after being injected with these inactivated bacteria. These short lived, “immunotherapy” injections were referred to as Coley Toxins. [39]

About a century later, the first FDA approved cancer vaccine (1990) was BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guérin) which uses a weakened strain of TB (tuberculosis) bacteria, and it triggers the immune system to protect against the infection that results in early-stage bladder cancer.  [6, 10] A second FDA approved cancer vaccine (2010) is the Sipuleucel-T, which is an autologous cellular immunotherapy used for patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). The vaccine activates the multiplication of immune cells and attacks prostate cancer cells using an antigen (one or more proteins on the surface of cancer cells that induce an immune response), that is highly specific to prostate cancer. [16, 8] A third FDA (2015) approved cancer vaccine is called T-VEC (Talimogene laherparepvec). T-VEC is an immunotherapy for treatment of melanoma skin cancer. T-VEC is made with a weakened version of herpesvirus in which it can break down cancer cells without affecting normal cells. Unlike other cancer vaccines, T-VEC is injected directly into the tumor. [38]

While two of the three cancer vaccines mentioned primarily function on established tumors/cancers, the more traditional way of thinking about vaccines is to prevent the disease from occuring. Since cancer is a genetic-based disease for the most part, this has been the greatest challenge in developing immune-shields against cancer. However, there are some “traditional” vaccines that immunize against viruses known to be linked to development of cancer. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is linked to nasopharyngeal cancer, stomach cancer, and Bukitt/Hodgkin lymphoma. The EBV vaccine targets EBV glycoprotein gp350, which is found in the virus and on virus infected cells. Gp350 is the main target for neutralizing antibodies in the body and causes cells to target a specific antigen. [31] Human papillomavirus (HPV) causes most cervical cancers including vulva, vagina, penis, anus, and oropharynx cancer. [5] The HPV vaccine is a non-infectious recombinant vaccine that stimulates the body to produce antibodies. These antibodies bind to specific parts of the HPV and signal to the immune cells to destroy these virus particles, preventing viral infection. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) causes chronic hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. [21] The HBV vaccine is also a recombinant vaccine and it work by causing the body to produce its own antibodies against the disease. [20,19] Human herpes virus (HSV) has been linked to cause cervical cancer. [22] While there aren’t any approved vaccines against HSV, there is a potential mRNA-based vaccine that is being studied to prevent HSV. The concept of this vaccine is to provide a strong antibody response and drive immune cells to kill HSV particles. [30, 14]

Many years of commitment have been put into developing immune cell-based therapies. Although there were many obstacles in developing and implementing this therapy, immune cells that were engineered to treat cancer called CAR T cells (approved by the FDA in 2017 and created by Novartis) were discovered. CAR T cells, also known as chimeric antigen receptor T cells, have been implemented in cancer treatment including lymphomas, leukemia, and myelomas. CAR T-cells are referred to as a living drug as they orchestrate the immune system and directly kill pathogenic cells. Immune T cells are harvested from patients and are customized for each patient. This results with highly engineered CAR T cells that can recognize and bind to specific proteins or antigens on the patient’s own cancer cells prompting their elimination. These T cells are customized because normal T cells are incapable of binding to these antigens. Once these cells are injected, they are directed towards cancer cells that express the antigen the CAR is designed to target. One major drawback is that since cancer cells are abnormal human cells, these antigens are sometimes expressed on healthy cells leading to off-target toxic effects. Not only are CAR T cells referred to as a cancer therapy, but they can also be considered a vaccine because the cells remain in circulation and proliferate inside the patient, potentially protecting against any recurrence of the cancer. [11]

In 2022, researchers believe they have found another viable cancer vaccine based on positive clinical trial results. Olivera Finn, a professor of immunology at the University of Pittsburgh was able to identify a colon tumor-specific antigen known as MUC1. Finn’s team was able to create a MUC1-based vaccine to help patients with premalignant colon polyps. This vaccine works by triggering an immune system response to attack the colon polyps. The vaccine reduced recurrence rates by 38% in the clinical trial, proving its effectiveness. Another example of the use of an antigen is the HER2, which is a protein found in about 25% of breast cancers. Knutson and Amy Degnim, who are breast surgeons at Mayo Clinic in Minnesota designed a HER2 vaccine used in a trial of 22 patients with invasive breast cancer. This vaccine is like the MUC1 vaccine where it targets the antigen, provokes the immune system, and kills cancer cells. The results were very promising, with only two recurrences after two years. [11] Although the timetable for a truly universal cancer vaccine is unclear, these examples of clinical trials show the potential of these vaccines to cure cancer, and how researchers are setting the stage to make cancer history. [1]

Conclusion

The most prominent method that researchers have been developing these cancer vaccines is using “driver” antigens, which acts as a target for the immune system. Although these cancer vaccines seem promising, a limitation is that tumors express an array of antigens that are also common in healthy cells, making it difficult for researchers to identify tumor-specific antigens. Cancer vaccines are not like live-attenuated or inactive vaccines where the germ is already placed in the body. Rather, they use these antigens to make the immune system purposely attack the tumors to prevent recurrence. Cellular immunotherapies introduce the least risk of toxic side effects since the cells are from the patient and they are engineered to target the cancer specifically. Similar to CAR-T therapy, researchers have developed CAR-macrophages (CAR-M) where these immune cells are also engineered in a similar manner to CAR-T cells. [17] However, a unique method to activate macrophage immune cells is to use antibodies, proteins and peptides to block interactions responsible for survival of the cancer cells and then only have activating signals against the cancer. [4] This is also known as checkpoint inhibitor therapy. Many breakthroughs along the studies of a cure for cancer have arisen recently, and it may just be a matter of a few years before the deadliest disease is eradicated. 

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About the author

Jonathan Lu

Jonathan Lu is a senior at the Concordia International School in Shanghai, China. Jonathan has a passion for Physics, Materials Science, Chemistry, Engineering, Biology, and all things basketball. In the paper, Jonathan analyzes the development of cancer vaccines and immunotherapy.

The post Cancer Vaccines: The Advancement of Immunotherapy appeared first on Exploratio Journal.

Abstract

From past times to recent times antibiotic resistance has emerged as a global threat. Antibiotic resistance has mainly affected the progress in health care, food industries and ultimately life expectancy. Almost all regions of the world are suffering from these antibiotic resistant diseases. This is mainly due to the movement of people, animals and goods across borders and countries. The emergence of different species of bacterium like Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecium, Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus pneumonia and more by adapting various defense mechanisms, has lead to the development of resistance towards antibiotics like Penicillin and Methicillin. This resistance is mainly caused by the presence of two important genes called mec-A that codes the PBP2a protein. mec-A and PBP2a are known to confer resistance, but the mechanism of resistance remains unclear. Further study of the mechanism has the potential to develop a new generation of antibiotics. Here, we have investigated the structural biology basis of PBP2a antibiotic resistance and the contribution of the genetic background of resistant S. aureus strains. It has been found that PBP2a confers resistance through its Ser403 residue in its active site, but that PBP2a is not sufficient to drive resistance. Genetic studies have identified an additional gene responsible for conferring PBP2a-based resistance, that is the bla gene that codes a beta lactamase. The presence of bla genes along with mec-A is important for effective activity of the PBP2a protein, as the presence of mec-A alone showed insufficient activity of the PBP2a protein. Western blot analysis of PBP2a expression in different S. aureus strains determined, that the concentration of PBP2a protein was high in cells containing plasmids that carried both mec-A and bla genes and low concentration of PBP2a was found in cells containing plasmids carrying only the mec-A gene.

Introduction

Antibiotic resistance is a property where a bacteria becomes resistant to antibiotics that are designed to kill them. Bacteria can escape inhibitory effects of drugs by acquiring certain mechanisms of resistance. There are several problems that are caused due to the persistent increase in the antibacterial resistance in bacteria. Antibiotic resistance occurs naturally by random mutations (Julin Davis and Dorothy Davis, 2010) through the process of natural selection and also can occur by selective pressure on the bacterial population (Alfredo Tello, et al. 2012). If a resistant gene is generated, it can be transferred from one strain to another by exchange of plasmids through horizontal gene transfer (HGT). During this process of acquiring resistance the antibiotics act as environmental pressure, due to which bacteria undergo certain mutations for its survival. When such strains proliferate, they produce progeny that are resistant towards various antibiotics by evolving certain resistance mechanisms.

Over usage of antibiotics, usage of broad spectrum antibiotics, incorrect diagnostics, unwanted prescription, wrong usage of antibiotics by patients and use of antibiotics in cattle feed for enhancing early growth, are mainly responsible for antibiotic resistance. It was discovered that the lexA gene is mostly responsible for these mutations (Charlie Ye Mo, 2016). A bacteria called Staphylococcus aureus is one of the major resistant pathogens, which is responsible for causing various diseases. Later on it became known as MRSA that was first detected in Britain in 1961, which is resistant to the methicillin antibiotic. Later in 1991, 4% of fatal cases of infections were recorded and rose to 37% by 1999 in the UK. In the USA 50% of the Staphylococcus aureus were resistant to tetracycline, penicillin, methicillin and erythromycin. Vancomycin used to be an effective drug at that period for Staphylococcus aureus but in the late 1990’s intermediate strains were detected with moderate resistance to Vancomycin at 4 μg/ml, which was named Vancomycin intermediate Staphylococcus aureus. In Japan in 1996 the first case was identified with a strain which is resistant to Vamcomycin at >16 μg/ml and the second case was found in the USA in 2002 (Susana Gardete and Alexander Tomasz, 2014 july).

In the late 1990’s new antibiotics like oxazolidinone and linezolid were found to be effective against MRSA. In 2003 Staphylococcus aureus resistance to linezolid was observed. CA-MRSA, community acquired MRSA, is the most common antimicrobial drug resistant pathogen found in US hospitals and became part of Endemic infections at that time. Along with MRSA there are other bacterial strains that are found to have resistance including Enterococcus faecium (penicillin resistant), in 1983, (vancomycin resistant) Enterococcus in 1987 and linezolid resistant Enterococcus in the late 1990’s. However group A Streptococcus pyogenes remained sensitive to penicillin. Later penicillin resistant Staphylococcus pneumonia emerged worldwide. The main gene responsible for beta lactamase and penicillin resistance is mec-A which encodes PBP2a proteins.

There are several problems caused by increasing antibiotic resistance that have become a major threat in various sectors including health, food, security, clinical sectors, agricultural sectors, It is most commonly prevalent among frontline workers like military officers, hospital staff and patients. It can affect anyone of any age, gender and any country. It occurs naturally, but misuse of antibiotics in humans and animals accelerate this process. Due to antibiotic resistance, the effectiveness of antibiotics is decreasing. As a result, it is becoming difficult to treat various diseases including pneumonia, tuberculosis, gonorrhea and salmonellosis.It leads to higher medical costs, longer hospital stays and increased mortality. Plasmids are one of the major important vectors which are responsible for spreading resistance among the strains in soil in agroecosystems. PBR3222 is one such resistant plasmid which carries genes for tetracycline and ampicillin resistance. HGT is one of the most common mechanisms by which bacteria either acquire or exchange resistance from other bacteria. Mobile genetic elements (MGE) like integrons (which are gene cassettes) usually carry antibiotic resistant genes to bacterial plasmids and transposons. Most of this resistance is due to the presence of certain proteins and genes, mainly the mecA gene which was originated from coagulase negative Staphylococci and is associated with a mobile genetic element called Staphylococcal chromosomal cassette mec (secmec) and integrates in the Staphylococcal chromosome. mecA encodes for the PBP2a protein, which is a transpeptidase and has a low affinity for beta lactam antibiotics like methicillin and tetracycline. PBP2a being a transpeptidase is involved in the continuous synthesis of the cell wall during antibiotic attack. PBP2d protein along with beta lactamases are mainly responsible for the broad spectrum resistance in MRSA.

Discussion

The genes mec-A for the PBP2a protein and bla gene for beta lactamases are mainly responsible for resistance in bacteria like MRSA. To know the mechanism behind the resistance and to study the location and properties of the active site, the study of crystalline structures of PBP2a is very important (Lim and colleagues, 2002). For the crystallization process, cells were grown on m9 medium to which 50 g of protein solution containing thr, leu, met, selenomethionine were added per liter of culture. After 15 minutes, protein expression was induced and the colonies were subjected to further purification by hydrophobic affinity chromatography and gel filtration exchange chromatography by adding 0.1% thiodiglycol. Cells were lysed and native Staphylococcus aureus (Sau) PBP2a was extracted as a soluble protein by a purification process using a hydroxyapatite column.

Further purification was done by gel filtration chromatography on a sepharyle 1000 column apparatus, which is equilibrated with 5 mM NaHCO3. Extraction of PBP2a was carried out using a hanging drop vapour diffusion method. Then, exposure of PBP2a with chemical compounds like NaCl, PEG and HEPES at pH 7 led to the formation of crystals and the crystals were extracted by a cryopreservation technique in which the N terminal anchor of PBP2a was replaced with a methionine and was observed under electrospray mass spectrometry. When beta lactams are introduced, they inhibit beta lactam sensitive PBP’s. Strains containing PBP2a have low affinity for beta lactams, conferring antibiotic resistance by the continuous synthesis of the cell wall, which prevents the cell from lysis. Beta lactam antibiotics like penicillin and methicillin are substrate analogs of PBPs and catalyze the process of cell wall lysis and eventually lead to death. However,acquisition of mec-A genes by MRSA confers resistance. The mec-A gene is highly conserved among MRSA isolates with > 90% sequence identity and encodes the PBP2a protein. This PBP2a is resistant to beta lactam and does not have any sensitive analogs or homologs. It has a large molecular mass of 78 kD and belongs to class B PBPs which usually have broad spectrum for methicillin and other beta lactam antibiotics. This study on the crystal structure of PBP2a reveals the structural features responsible for its beta lactam resistance and provides important insights for the design of novel antibiotics against MRSA. Sau PBP2a has a transmembrane anchor which can be removed for the studying of beta lactam binding kinetics without affecting the beta lactam activity. The soluble derivative residues of PBP2a were determined by MAD method (Mean Absolute Deviation) using selenomethionine substituted protein. The extraction of this molecule has revealed structural conformations of the PBP2a protein and the location of active sites present within the non penicillin binding domain in the PBP2a. The active site along with the serine 403 at the N terminal helix of the alpha2 fold of Sau PBP2a along with a conserved oxidation hole containing serine 403 and Thr 600 as a nitrogenous backbone.During the acylation of beta lactam, the serine active site is mostly responsible for the process of inducing resistance towards the antibiotic. However, continuous acylation of serine molecules leads to dehydration. And may result in decreasing the activity of the active site, resulting in cell lysis and death. In order to make this process continuous, the serine 403 associated with the N terminal end of lys 406, present in beta lactam carboxylate enzyme. This forms hydrogen bonds, thus helping the serine present in the active site undergo deacylation, to further continue the process of cell wall protection by nucleophilic attack during the resistance mechanism.

This serine-lysine bond promotes the PBP2a conformational change, thus providing unfavourable conditions for the antibiotic to attack the complex. The low affinity binding towards the beta lactam induces slow acylation, leading to a rate limiting step responsible for the beta lactam resistance in MRSA. In normal methicillin sensitive PBPs, higher acylation rates are one of the major reasons for the antibiotic sensitivity and lead to cell death.

Location and function of the mec-A gene

The mec-A gene is located on a mobile chromosomal cassette called secmec. In this paper (Katayama, et al. 2003), use of naive cells (strains without mec-A genes) and experienced hosts (methicillin susceptible strains in which mec-A was excised) was mainly done to demonstrate the expression of mec-A genes and PBP2a protein activity towards the beta lactam resistance. A plasmid called pYK-20 was used as a carrier for the mec-A gene and was introduced into experienced and naive strains. The excision of this mec-A gene from the methicillin resistant strain was done by CC5-1, CC5-2 restriction enzymes and were introduced into the different vector plasmids like pYK-644, pYK-20, Hind 3, Coln plasmid, pNR-5542 and pCN-2278 and some of the plasmids were introduced with both mec-A and bla genes. These plasmids were amplified using PCR and these plasmids were introduced into naive hosts and experienced hosts through the process of micropropagation and growth curves were measured to screen for the transformants containing the plasmid vectors. These cells were grown on nafcillin containing media to test for antibiotic resistance. Naive cells containing the plasmids that carried only mec genes showed weak growth of 2.5% and the naive cells containing plasmids which are introduced with both mec-A and bla genes showed resistance to nafcillin. Transformed experienced strains showed normal resistance as that of parents containing mec-A genes. Taken together, these experiments suggest resistance is driven by transformants containing the plasmids with both mec-A genes and bla genes, indicating that combined activity of mec-A and bla are required for resistance. As, the experienced strains showed resistance and the naive cells did not express due to the host barrier. Tranformants were then tested to analyse the expression of the PBP2a protein by western blot. After the electrophoresis separation the separated proteins are loaded onto the nitrocellulose membrane containing monoclonal anti PBP2a antibodies. The desired PBP2a proteins bind with the antibodies. After the washing the unwanted proteins are removed. The secondary labelled antibodies are introduced and bind to the desired protein-antibody complex and develop colour and the PBP2a are visualised as thick bands depending upon the concentration under autoradiography. It was observed that Colnex with pYK 20 showed the maximum PBP2a production indicating high resistance, containing a plasmid carrying both mec and bla genes.

Conclusion

Both PBP2a and beta Lactamases are important for antibiotic resistance, and the structural confirmation of Ser403 present in the active site of the PBP2a protein is most important to confer proper and effective resistance towards the antibiotics. As in the studies we observed that the cells with plasmids carrying both mec and bla genes showed more resistance than cells with plasmids containing a single gene. What this suggests is although PBP2a is required for antibiotic resistance, it is not sufficient to induce resistance. In fact, additional genes such as bla are also required to induce resistance. More studies and research on new antibiotics targeting Ser403 and the active site of PBP2a, possibly designing new antibiotics towards PBP2a and designing antibiotics that target bla gene products would be effective. Combinatorial antibiotic treatment targeting both PBP2a and bla may help in effective treatment towards these antibiotic resistant diseases.

References

Julin Davis and Dorothy Davis, September 2010. Origins and Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance.Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. V 74(3): 417–433.

Alfredo Tello, Brain Austin and Trevor C Telfer, Aug 2012. Selective pressure of antibiotic pollution on bacteria of importance to public health. PubMed.

Charlie Ye Mo, January 2016. Make Antibiotics Great Again: Combating Drug Resistance By Targeting Lexa, A Regulator Of Bacterial Evolution. Researchgate.

Susana Gardete and Alexander Tomasz, Jul 1 2014. Mechanisms of vancomycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. The journal of clinical investigation, V 124(7): 2836–2840.

Daniel Lim and Natalie C. J. Strynadka, 21 October 2002. Structural basis for the -lactam resistance of PBP2a from methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Nature structural biology, Volume 9: 870-876.

Yuki Katayama, Hong-Zhong Zhang, Dong Hong, and Henry F. Chambers, 23 June 2003. Jumping the Barrier to -Lactam Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. JOURNAL OF BACTERIOLOGY, p. 5465–5472.

About the author

Harshini Balaga

The post Antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus and its adverse effects on global health appeared first on Exploratio Journal.

Abstract

Heart attacks, or Myocardial Infarctions (MI), lead to death of tissue due to lack of blood supply to the portion of the organ. Resulting scar tissue does not contract or function as well as healthy muscle tissue. On the other hand, stem cells have shown propensity to be guided into becoming specific cells that can be used to regenerate and repair diseased or damaged tissues in people. This paper will explore the latest research that supports using induced pluripotent stem cells for tissue reparation in cardiovascular disease.

Introduction

Over the past few decades, stem cell therapies have evolved considerably and one of their many potential applications could be to repair the scarring caused by myocardial infarctions. Myocardial Infarction (MI), which is a reduction or blockage of blood flow in the coronary arteries, commonly referred to as heart attack, is one of the leading causes of death in the United States with 805,000 people experiencing one every year (CDC). Unfortunately, out of those 805,000, 12% will die (CDC). Following MI, the inadequate blood flow to the infarcted tissue causes a severe reduction of oxygen and nutrients, leading to cardiomyocyte necrosis (reduced contractility), and therefore compromised heart function. MI does not traditionally have any treatment since once the tissue has necrotized, it can not regain its function. MI’s can only be managed with preventative measures taken to inhibit another incident. Medicines like aspirin and other anti-clotting drugs are used to keep clots from forming and causing another MI (CDC). ACE inhibitors reduce the strain on the heart by lowering blood pressure and this helps to not weaken the damaged tissues any further (NIH). Similarly, Betablockers also reduce the strain on the organ by blocking the release of stress hormones like noradrenaline and adrenaline to keep heart rate constant (NIH). All of these, however, only reduce the risk of a recurrence and do not regenerate the dead tissue, whereas a different form of therapy for the damaged tissue could bring about a brighter prospect. Stem cells can regenerate tissues suitable to one’s own body without having to use a transplant. This makes it less risky when it comes to a patient’s body rejecting the cells. Some varieties are also easily accessible, usable, and effective in their respective needs.

Out of the many varieties of stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells, are some of the most promising to study. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells) are derived from somatic cells that are reprogrammed into iPS cells. These cells can then be made to differentiate into whatever tissue cell is needed (Shi et al, 2016). They are also important to observe because of their accessibility and high turnover rate (Krzysztof et al, 2018). In this review, we will focus on two types of stem cells: induced pluripotent stem cells, and their abilities in tissue regeneration in regards to therapies to treat the infarcted myocardium (Yoshida et al, 2017).

Induced Pluripotent Stem cells

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs) are adult somatic cells that are reprogrammed into a pluripotent state. These cells are adults and unipotent, meaning they are capable of regenerating only their own specific tissue type (Tweedell, 2017). For example, an adult somatic cell in the skin could only generate skin cells. When these cells are reprogrammed into iPSCs, they become pluripotent, and are able to differentiate into any type of tissue with appropriate differentiation factors (Tweedell, 2017).

The use of iPSCs for regenerative medicine bears significant advantages. In fact, the somatic cells generally used for reprogramming are highly accessible and they are already part of the body of the person who needs them. Therefore, there is no risk of rejection when they are implanted for regenerating damaged tissues or organs (Arjmand et al, 2017). One further advantage is that they are not controversial like embryonic stem cells that are isolated from embryos while having similar properties. Generating the iPSCs is completed by taking any healthy adult somatic cells from the body and reverse engineering them into a pluripotent state where they can then differentiate into whatever cell type is needed. How this occurs is that first, the cells organize spatially and then divide into three areas. The middle section, differentiates into the middle portion of the three’s lineage and this activates certain genes.

Cardiovascular Regeneration

As mentioned above, one of the capabilities of iPSCs is tissue regeneration, which is paramount for cardiovascular tissue regeneration. The basic process for cardiovascular tissue engineering consists in isolating somatic cells of the patient or from healthy donors, which are then reprogrammed to iPSCs. Next, the obtained iPSCs are differentiated into the specific cell type that is needed (such as cardiomyocytes, cardiac fibroblasts, or endothelial cells). The differentiated cells must be cultured in the lab to grow, and during this process they can be stimulated with chemical or physical cues to mimic the mechanical properties of the beating heart. The last step is to inject or implant the cells into the patient.

Cardiovascular tissue engineering has shown promising results in vitro and in preclinical in vivo studies. Several groups have used small animal models, including mice and rats model of myocardial infarction to assess the ability of repairing the damaged heart tissue with iPSCs-derived cardiomyocytes. An example of implantation of cardiac engineered tissues in a small animal model is provided by (Tompkins et. al. 2018), that used 3D bioprinted iPSC-derived cardiomyocytes, fibroblasts and endothelial cells to produce 3D patches that were implanted in n=6 infarcted rats.

Additionally, vivo models further demonstrate that this path of study is incredibly promising. The work of Tompkins et. al. describes small animal models where iPSCs are implanted. This article demonstrates how this work is viable in live models as they tested various species of small animals to prove efficacy. Moreover, the same study considered large animal studies and deduced that they too have promising results. More specifically, in swine models, which are known to have extremely similar cardiac structure to that of humans, these studies further the thought that using iPSCs to repair tissues is a viable solution. Kawamura et al. placed a sheet of dermal fibroblast-derived hiPSC-CMs over the infarcted area in an ischemic swine model, which produced improved cardiac performance, angiogenesis (increased number of blood vessels in the infarct), and an attenuated LV remodeling 8-weeks post implantation.

While in the lab, stimuli of stretching and current are used to help the cells mature faster and grow more resilient. This is one place of research that is continuing to challenge researchers, since they do not have years to culture mature cells and there is risk with implanting immature cells regarding their ability to adapt to the heart’s environment. However, it can and has been done, as explained above, which has drawn tremendous attention to this field of pursuit. Moreover, cardiovascular regeneration is one of the newest technologies in repairing damaged tissues in the heart. This breakthrough has made it possible to just regrow healthy and functional tissue instead of needing a transplant since it is already known that once tissue is dead from a myocardial infarction, there is no way to salvage it. As the MI damages the tissue, it makes it impossible for the original tissue to be functional, so inputting fresh, cultivated tissues open up new possibilities in life for the patient after their MI episode.

Drug Screening

During the process of drug screening, various drugs are tested on the cardiac engineered tissues to gauge safety and efficacy of the tested molecules and drugs. One of the commonly tested side effects of newly developed drugs are for drug induced arrhythmias. By testing in-vitro with iPSCs outside of a patient’s body, it is not only more convenient to do so but also safer so as to not involve a live subject (Smith et. al. 2017). Various types of cell models are used, ranging from flat, 2D monolayers to more complex 3D tissues, organ-on-a-chip models show a wide range of functionality. Each of these model types show a range from the least to most complex levels of organization in order to understand how drugs can affect the cardiomyocytes on a basic to fully vascularized level (Smith et. al. 2017 Fig. 1). This is one place of development in the field of iPSCs that would be of great benefit to the scientific community and to the general population as well. If drugs can be screened and tested within a lab without having to use in vivo models until much later in the process, it can be much more ethical and more varieties of medicines that may or may not be viewed as viable could potentially be trialed in this way due to the reduced ethics concerns.

One example of a clinical trial is in the research of Blinova et. al. which shows a personalized drug screen model that highlights how iPSCs derived from 22 healthy subjects can be grown and tested within a dish. Safety and efficacy of two drugs, dofetilide and moxifloxacin (hERG‐blocking and QT prolonging), were tested on iPSCs isolated from the peripheral blood mononuclear cells and differentiated in cardiomyocytes. There were no drug induced arrhythmia-like events observed at the studied drug concentration rate. In vivo model of testing that highlights how tissue can be grown and tested within a dish. In this trial, the researchers tested and analyzed for arrhythmias in the iPSCs. This demonstrates how various environments of the heart can be simulated in the lab and that it is necessary to do so (Blinova et. al. 2019)

Various different types of trials can be used to screen for arrhythmias in a drug screening. One method researchers historically and commonly use is the analysis of hERG channel response which is the standard procedure for in vitro preclinical trials of drug screening. While this is a method commonly used, it is not as accurate as could be desired since false positive results are frequent occurrences (Smith et. al. 2017). This is why iPSC-CMs are making headway in the field of drug screening since they offer a more accurate option. There are various tests researchers can run with in vitro models of iPSCs to represent the function of the heart more fully and effectively. Out of the multitude of options researchers now have with iPSC-CMs as an option, an example presented in the above research is that researchers measure cell contraction to observe the cardiomyocytes’ contractile function (Smith et. al. 2017).

Conclusion

After an episode of myocardial infarction, heart tissue is damaged irreversibly and the prognosis only entails either drug therapeutics or organ transplant. Cardiovascular regeneration is one of the newest technologies in regards to repairing damaged tissues in the heart. With reprogrammed iPSCs , the patient is able to have their healthy cells cultured in a lab and remediate the scarred tissue resulting from an MI episode. Furthermore, progress has also been made in labs to accommodate the new research and to screen drugs to ensure their safety with the cultured tissues when implanted in a person. All together, these breakthroughs have made it possible to regrow healthy and functioning tissue and using iPSCs could make this possibility a reality.

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Blinova K, Schocken D, Patel D, Daluwatte C, Vicente J, Wu JC, Strauss DG. Clinical Trial in a Dish: Personalized Stem Cell-Derived Cardiomyocyte Assay Compared With Clinical Trial Results for Two QT-Prolonging Drugs. Clin Transl Sci. 2019 Nov;12(6):687-697.

CDC, Heart Disease in the United States, 2020 Sept.

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About the author

Rishya Gutti

Rishya is a junior at Neuqua Valley High School. She is interested in biological sciences and is an aspiring medical student. Research programs like RISE (Research, Inquiry Skills & Experimentation) have equipped Rishya with necessary skills to conduct independent research. She is a third degree black belt in Taekwondo and has won several national titles in her age group. Rishya enjoys volunteering her time to teach mathematics to younger students and to promote mental health awareness through a non-profit organization. In her free time, you will find her reading, working out, or watching her favorite tv shows.

The post Using induced pluripotent stem cells for tissue regeneration in cardiovascular diseases appeared first on Exploratio Journal.

Abstract

Migraine is the sixth most disabling illness in the world and the third most common (Saper, 2021). Many studies have found that migraines have numerous causes, which creates a wide variability in the effectiveness of treatments. In recent years, there has been exploration of alternative methods of treatment, such as music therapy. There have been many studies regarding music therapy and pain treatment, but very few specifically for headaches, and results have been inconclusive. The proposed research seeks to examine the extent to which predisposed beliefs about music therapy impact its efficacy when treating chronic migraines. Over the course of a six-week study, patients will be randomly assigned to one of two experimental treatment conditions whereby they will receive a combination or standard pharmaceutical treatment plus music therapy or standard pharmaceutical treatment plus therapeutic rhythmic class. Patients will also report the degree to which they perceive music therapy and other alternative treatments as effective pain-relieving measures. Patients will also report their pain symptoms weekly. It is anticipated that patients with stronger belief in the efficacy of music therapy, in particular, will experience greater reduction in pain symptoms when in the music therapy condition. The implications of an interaction between treatment efficacy beliefs and actual treatment effectiveness are discussed.

The Impact of Belief in Treatment Methodology on the Efficacy of Music Therapy in Those with Chronic Migraines

While many people have friends or family members who suffer from migraines, individuals who do not experience migraines themselves may be unaware of how chronic, unpredictable, and often mysterious migraine symptoms are. Approximately 1 billion people around the world have migraines (Pool, 2021), making migraines the third most prevalent illness in the world, along with being the 6th most disabling (Saper, 2021). Lipton et al. (2007) reported that 53.7% of those with migraines were severely impaired.  Munakata et al. (2009) found that those with episodic migraine had direct and indirect costs of $1757 per year, and those with transformed migraine had costs of $7750 per year.  Those who experience migraine–as well as their closest family and friends–are more likely to pursue knowledge regarding migraine causes and treatment (Saper, 2021), but they often find that migraines have many different causes and thus there is wide variability in types of treatment and their efficacy (Dodick & Gargus, 2008). Recently, there has been increasing interest in alternative treatments for migraine sufferers such as yoga (John et. al, 2007), risk factor modification (Schwedt, 2014), and music therapy (Diamante & Roxas, 2020). However, the degree to which such alternative treatments alleviate symptoms may be influenced by patients’ beliefs in their efficacy (e.g., Horne, 1999). Accordingly, the current research proposal seeks to examine how much predisposed beliefs about music therapy impact its efficacy, and if music therapy is actually effective in treating chronic migraines.

Music Therapy

Music therapy has been examined as a potential treatment for dementia (Vink et. al, 2003), generalized anxiety disorder (Gutiérrez & Camarena, 2015), as well as chronic migraine symptoms (Diamante & Roxas, 2020). Research on the use of music therapy as a treatment for migraines has demonstrated that it shows a significant improvement from no treatment (Oelkers-Ax, 2008). Music therapy has been shown to be effective for those seeking treatment for chronic migraine and tinnitus (Nickel et al., 2005). Additionally, Langenburg and colleagues (1995) did a case study on music therapy as treatment for someone with chronic migraines which demonstrated that it does lessen migraine symptoms. While additional studies have demonstrated similar efficacy for MT as a treatment for migraines (e.g., Diamante & Roxas, 2020), other studies have found that MT, while effective, is no more effective than other alternative treatments (Koenig, 2014). Moreover, music therapy can better improve executive functioning when it is able to provide functional support (Thaut & Hoemberg, 2017). Accordingly, we should expect music therapy to reduce migraine symptoms in patients when used in conjunction with standard treatment, but perhaps not more so than other distracting treatments. However, there are moderating factors that could influence the degree to which individual patients respond to alternative treatments such as music therapy–one of which may be their belief in the efficacy of music therapy.

Patient’s Beliefs in the Efficacy of Treatment

The ability of a patient’s belief in the efficacy of certain treatments to affect treatment outcomes has been examined in a variety of contexts. Patients’ beliefs about the type of treatment they’re receiving has been shown to impact the efficacy of that treatment (Horne, 1999). The symptoms of patients suffering from various illnesses were shown to respond more strongly to medical treatment among patients who believe more strongly in the effectiveness of traditional medicine as a treatment (Foulks et. al, 1986): the expectation of a drug’s impact on symptoms strongly influences the therapeutic efficacy of that drug (Bingel et al, 2011). Similarly, Clatworthy et. al found that patients better adhered to their treatment plan when they believed that it would work, and thus they found more benefits from their treatment (2007). In addition, a study regarding the effects of methotrexate on rheumatoid arthritis symptoms found similar results (de Thurah et. al, 2009). Studies have also demonstrated that beliefs regarding severity of the patient’s illness impact the efficacy of the treatment (Marks et al., 1986). However, to the best of our knowledge, no research has yet investigated this moderating influence regarding the efficacy of music therapy in migraine treatment. Accordingly, the current research will assign patients to two conditions of music therapy, one who has strong beliefs in the efficacy of music therapy, and one who does not. These two groups will demonstrate the relationship between belief in the efficacy of treatment and pain reduction.

Research Hypothesis: We expect that the efficacy of music therapy, in comparison to a different alternative treatment, in reducing migraine symptoms will be moderated by patients’ beliefs in music therapy’s effectiveness. Specifically, we expect that the relative efficacy of music therapy, in comparison to yoga therapy, in relieving chronic pain symptoms will be greater among individuals who already perceive music therapy as an effective treatment.

Method

Participants

Participants will be recruited from a hospital circuit, through compliant doctors asking their patients with chronic migraines. They will be given a small monetary sum, and the study will be conducted in an academic center with music facilities.  

Measures

Belief in Treatment Efficacy. Prior to being randomly assigned to a treatment condition, patients will fill out a brief survey asking them to report how effective they believe each of the following therapies would be for reducing their migraine symptoms: music therapy, rhythmic class, yoga, mindfulness meditation, traditional western medicine, and pet therapy (Appendix A). Brief descriptions of each therapy type will accompany the items. Participants will indicate their belief in the efficacy of each therapy on a 1 (“Not at All Effective”) to 7 (“Highly Effective”) Likert-type scale. The variable of interest is patients’ beliefs in the efficacy of music therapy, and patients will be told that their beliefs will not affect the treatment condition to which they are assigned. 

Treatment Condition. Patients will be randomly assigned to receive one of two treatments in addition to traditional pharmaceutical treatment: music therapy or rhythmic class This treatment manipulation is similar to one used in previous research (Gutgsell et. al 2013).  In each condition, patients will undergo their additional treatment 3 times per week. Patients in the music therapy condition will go into a dark room without distractions for 20 minutes and have a music therapist play harp pieces for them. Patients in the rhythmic class (Bozorg-Nejad et. al 2018) condition will go into a dark room without distractions for 20 minutes and will be taught how to control the various paces of the body with breathing. These conditions will last for 6 weeks.

Improvement of Symptoms. The dependent variable that will be measured is the difference in pain before treatment and after treatment using a standardized scale. Patients will rate their overall severity of their symptoms at the end of each week on a scale from 0 (“No Symptoms”) to 10 (“Emergency Treatment Necessary”) similar to measures of migraine pain used in previous research (Jensen et. al 1999). Average scores from the final three weeks will be subtracted from average scores from the first three weeks to determine the change in symptoms over the treatment period.

Procedure

 When first agreeing to participate in the study, the participants will complete an informed consent document. They will be given their monetary reimbursement of $50 for their time, and then will be separated into two groups, after being sent and completing the survey about their beliefs in the efficacy of music therapy remotely. From those two groups they will be randomly assigned to either the music therapy condition or the rhythmic class, depending on what time of day they fill out the survey. They will then go to these therapies at least three times per week for 20 minutes for six weeks. Over the course of these six weeks their pain symptoms will be monitored and recorded through their respective nurses on the standardized scale in Appendix B. 

Results

Correlational Analyses

A zero-order Pearson correlational analysis will be conducted to assess the relationship between belief in the efficacy of music therapy and improvement of pain symptoms for patients in the MT condition only. We hypothesize that, among patients in the MT condition, higher belief in MT will predict more improvement of symptoms. We expect to see a similar correlation between belief in the effectiveness of rhythmic class in the comparison condition.

T-Test

A t-test will be conducted to compare symptom improvement between the two experimental groups. We expect that without taking into account the patients’ beliefs in MT’s effectiveness that patients in the MT conditional will not show significantly more or less improvement than patients in the rhythmic class condition. 

 Moderation Analysis

To test our primary research hypothesis, a moderation analysis will be conducted using the PROCESS macro (Hayes, 2013) Model 1. Treatment condition will be added to the model as the independent variable (x), belief in the efficacy of music therapy as the moderator (w), and symptom improvement as the dependent variable (y). We predict that belief in the efficacy of MT will moderate the difference between treatment groups such that MT will be more effective than rhythmic class among participants with higher beliefs in MT’s efficacy. The conceptual model is illustrated in Figure 1.

Discussion

The proposed study seeks to explore the relationship between patients’ beliefs in the efficacy of alternative forms of treatment for chronic pain and the actual effectiveness of those treatments. In particular, this study intends to focus on music therapy (MT) as a potential treatment. Patients’ beliefs about MT, and other alternative treatments, will be measured prior to random assignment to a treatment condition that includes typical pharmaceutical treatment plus either music therapy or a comparison treatments condition. It is hypothesized that beliefs in the efficacy of MT will interact with assignment to the MT condition such that patients who perceive MT as more effective and are assigned to the MT condition will experience more pain symptom relief over the course of the study. 

Implications

Approximately 5-12% percent of people worldwide suffer from migraines (MacGregor et. al, 2003), which is millions of people. Therefore, the majority of people at least know someone who is a victim of this kind of pain. Additionally, making strides within the treatment of these migraines could vastly improve quality of life. Music therapy specifically is an instance of alternative methods, based on other facts. If the experimental hypothesis was supported, then pain treatment would be reimagined to adjust to the beliefs of the patient. To ensure the best outcomes, physicians could prescribe whichever alternative treatment an individual patient has the most positive views of in addition to pharmaceutical treatment. Additionally, results that support our hypotheses would suggest that physicians should emphasize scientific support for alternative methods to their patients. Doing so may make beliefs about such treatments more positive, which would in turn make the treatments more effective.

Limitations

This study would be done on adults, so it probably would not be as conclusive for the same study done on children or adolescents. The proposed study also does not account for potential disparities among those who have chronic migraines. This study also would not discuss the musical aspect involved in rhythm. The proposed study also does not account for the influence of those providing the treatment on the patient’s belief in efficacy. This study also only compares two types of alternative therapies, when there are many others which could have different results.

Future Directions

In future studies, there should be much deliberation regarding the control therapy and how it relates to music therapy. There could be focus on how different types of music impact the efficacy, or how it relates to what is being treated. . For instance, it has been shown that music can help those with dementia express themselves with language (Brotons & Kroger, 2000). Moreover, connecting these two things is something worth looking into, based on how music has a unique impact on the brain and has helped lessen the impacts of other neurological disorders. As far as pain management goes, it is important to consider the different ways that people can feel pain and how each experience it unique, along with the wide variety of treatment methods- beyond the ones discussed in this proposal.

References

Bingel, U., Wanigasekera, V., Wiech, K., Mhuircheartaigh, R. N., Lee, M. C., Ploner, M., & Tracey, I. (2011). The effect of treatment expectation on drug efficacy: imaging the analgesic benefit of the opioid remifentanil. Science translational medicine, 3(70), 70ra14-70ra14.

Bozorg-Nejad, M., Azizkhani, H., Ardebili, F. M., Mousavi, S. K., Manafi, F., & Hosseini, A. F. (2018). The effect of rhythmic breathing on pain of dressing change in patients with burns referred to ayatollah mousavi hospital. World journal of plastic surgery, 7(1), 51.

Brotons, M., PhD, MT-BC, Koger, S. PhD, The Impact of Music Therapy on Language Functioning in Dementia, Journal of Music Therapy, Volume 37, Issue 3, Fall 2000, Pages 183–195, https://doi.org/10.1093/jmt/37.3.183

Clatworthy, J., Bowskill, R., Rank, T., Parham, R., & Horne, R. (2007). Adherence to medication in bipolar disorder: a qualitative study exploring the role of patients’ beliefs about the condition and its treatment. Bipolar disorders, 9(6), 656-664.

de Thurah, A., Nørgaard, M., Harder, I. et al. Compliance with methotrexate treatment in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: influence of patients’ beliefs about the medicine. A prospective cohort study. Rheumatol Int 30, 1441–1448 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00296-009-1160-8

Foulks, E. F., Persons, J. B., & Merkel, R. L. (1986). The effect of patients’ beliefs about their illnesses on compliance in psychotherapy. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 143(3), 340–344. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.143.3.340

Gutiérrez, E. O. F., & Camarena, V. A. T. (2015). Music therapy in generalized anxiety disorder. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 44, 19-24. 

Gutgsell, K. J., Schluchter, M., Margevicius, S., DeGolia, P. A., McLaughlin, B., Harris, M., … & Wiencek, C. (2013). Music therapy reduces pain in palliative care patients: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of pain and symptom management, 45(5), 822-831.

Horne, R. (1999). Patients’ beliefs about treatment: The hidden determinant of treatment outcome?[Editorial]. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 47(6), 491–495. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3999(99)00058-6

Jensen, M. P., Turner, J. A., Romano, J. M., & Fisher, L. D. (1999). Comparative reliability and validity of chronic pain intensity measures. Pain, 83(2), 157-162.

John, P., Sharma, N., Sharma, C.M. and Kankane, A. (2007), Effectiveness of Yoga Therapy in the Treatment of Migraine Without Aura: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Headache: The Journal of Head and Face Pain, 47: 654-661

Koenig J. Music therapy in the treatment of primary headache disorders. OA Alternative Medicine 2014 Jan 18;2(1):1

Langenberg, M., Frommer, J., & Tress, W. (1995). Music therapy single case research–a qualitative approach. Psychotherapie, Psychosomatik, medizinische Psychologie, 45(12), 418-426.

MacGregor, E. A., Brandes, J., & Eikermann, A. (2003). Migraine prevalence and treatment patterns: the global Migraine and Zolmitriptan Evaluation survey. Headache: The Journal of Head and Face Pain, 43(1), 19-26.

Lipton, R. B., Bigal, M. E., Diamond, M., Freitag, F., Reed, M. L., & Stewart, W. F. (2007). Migraine prevalence, disease burden, and the need for preventive therapy. Neurology, 68(5), 343-349.

Marks, G., Richardson, J. L., Graham, J. W., & Levine, A. (1986). Role of health locus of control beliefs and expectations of treatment efficacy in adjustment to cancer. Journal of personality and social psychology, 51(2), 443.

Munakata, J., Hazard, E., Serrano, D., Klingman, D., Rupnow, M. F., Tierce, J., … & Lipton, R. B. (2009). Economic burden of transformed migraine: results from the American Migraine Prevalence and Prevention (AMPP) Study. Headache: The Journal of Head and Face Pain, 49(4), 498-508.

Oelkers-Ax, R., Leins, A., Parzer, P., Hillecke, T., Bolay, H. V., Fischer, J., … & Resch, F. (2008). Butterbur root extract and music therapy in the prevention of childhood migraine: an explorative study. European Journal of Pain, 12(3), 301-313.

Thaut, M. H. (2010). Neurologic music therapy in cognitive rehabilitation. Music Perception, 27(4), 281-285.

Vink, A. C., Bruinsma, M. S., & Scholten, R. J. (2003). Music therapy for people with dementia. Cochrane database of systematic reviews, (4).

Appendix A

Questionnaire for measuring belief in efficacy of music therapy.

How confident are you in the ability of pet therapy to treat your pain?

  1                   2                 3                   4                  5                 6                 7

Not at all                                                                                                  Extremely 

confident                                                                                                  confident

How confident are you in the ability of rhythmic classes to treat your pain?

  1                   2                 3                   4                  5                 6                 7

Not at all                                                                                                  Extremely 

confident                                                                                                  confident

How confident are you in the ability of yoga to treat your pain?

  1                   2                 3                   4                  5                 6                 7

Not at all                                                                                                  Extremely 

confident                                                                                                  confident

How confident are you in the ability of music therapy to treat your pain?

  1                   2                 3                   4                  5                 6                 7

Not at all                                                                                                  Extremely 

confident                                                                                                  confident

How confident are you in the ability of traditional western medicine to treat your pain?

  1                   2                 3                   4                  5                 6                 7

Not at all                                                                                                  Extremely 

confident                                                                                                  confident

How confident are you in the ability of mindfulness meditation to treat your pain?

  1                   2                 3                   4                  5                 6                 7

Not at all                                                                                                  Extremely 

confident                                                                                                  confident

Appendix B

Measurement of pain

How would you rate your pain symptoms this week??

  1               2              3                 4              5              6              7                8               9            10

No symptoms                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    

About the author

Karishma Kulshrestha

Karishma is currently a Senior at the Thomas Worthington High School in Ohio. She has a strong passion for people, and her extraverted nature is where this seed was planted. As someone with chronic migraines herself, she has seen a lot of the medical systems from the patient perspective which has allowed her to think about things others might not normally. Karishma is in marching band and was a drum major this year. She also plays volleyball, and started a ski club at her school.

The post The Impact of Belief in Treatment Methodology on the Efficacy of Music Therapy in Those with Chronic Migraines appeared first on Exploratio Journal.

Abstract

The ability of stem cells to self-renew and form different mature cells expands the possibilities of application in cell therapy, such as tissue reorganization in regenerative medicine, drug detection, and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. In addition to stem cells found in embryos, several adult organs and tissues also have stem cell niches in an undifferentiated state. In the central nervous system of adult mammals, neurogenesis occurs in two areas: the subventricular zone and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. The different nervous systems originate from adult neural stem cells, which can self-renew or differentiate into astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, or neurons that respond to specific stimuli. The regulation of the fate of neural stem cells is a finely controlled process that relies on a complex regulatory network that extends from the epigenetics to the translational level and involves components of the extracellular matrix. Therefore, a better understanding of the mechanisms by which neurogenesis is induced, regulated, and maintained will provide clues for the development of new strategies for neurodegenerative treatment. In this review, we focus on the regulatory mechanisms of transcription factors, microRNAs, and components of the extracellular matrix in neuronal differentiation.

1. Introduction 

Neocortical circuits consist of profoundly interconnected excitatory glutamatergic and inhibitory GABAergic neurons, which are produced from unmistakable pools of RGCs. During embryo development, the excitatory neurons are formed from RGCs confined in the ventricular zone of the dorsal telencephalon and relocate radially toward the pial surface in a back to the front way (spiral movement). Then again, inhibitory neurons fundamentally begin from the ventral telencephalon and relocate digressively into the neocortex (distracting movement). Regardless of such unique formative starting points, both excitatory and inhibitory neurons go through the multipolar stage with a few minor cycles in the neocortex before axon augmentation. Then, at that point, they go through dynamic morphological changes to start axon development, in particular, neuronal polarization. Sakakibara and Hatanaka () assessed the consecutive occasions in polarization cycles of both excitatory and inhibitory neurons, and they talked about the hidden atomic instruments. At the multipolar stage, the excitatory neurons fleetingly utilize a multipolar relocation mode, to be specific movement with no fixed heading, in the subventricular and middle of the road zones. Then, at that point, they receive a bipolar shape during neuronal polarization and relocate rapidly toward the pial surface along with RGC measures, which is called headway mode.

Many types of molecules are involved in these powerful changes in neuron morphology and migration. The small GTP binding protein plays an important role in regulating the development of the cortex and the formation of neurons. The Rnd protein, “abnormal” relatives of Rho, was displayed in neuronal movement, and their ascending and descending pathways were discussed. Many cytoplasmic protein elements, including parts of the cytoskeleton, are managed through phosphorylation and dephosphorylation measures. Ohshima focused on protein kinases, including CDK5 and JNK, and examined their paperwork on cytoskeletal associations during multipolar bipolar progression and extended movement. OhtakaMaruyama and Okado comprehensively summarized the atomic pathways involved in these formation cycles and emphasized the importance of subplate neurons in steering events and the development of the six-layer neocortex design. 

 Pluripotent stem cells are usually derived from embryonic tissue. At least three different types of mammalian pluripotent stem cells have been identified: embryos or cancer cells (CE), embryonic stem cells (ES) derived from the inner cell mass of blastocysts, and embryonic germ cells (EG) derived from post-implantation embryos. In the early 1990s, several groups reported the existence of a subset of stem cells found in the central nervous system (CNS). These cells form the brains of fetal mice or mice that grow in culture and show an almost unlimited lifespan. However, compared to embryonic stem cells, their differentiation potential is more limited and they mainly produce three main cell types of the central nervous system: neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes, hence the name NSC. These cells have also been isolated from the adult central nervous system, although it is not clear whether these dividing cells are truly pluripotent or whether their fate becomes more restricted during development. For the purposes of this review, NSCs are defined as nerve cells that have the potential to self-renew and generate all the different types of cells in the nervous system after differentiation. 

2. Method

Neuronal differentiation is an early event in mammalian embryogenesis, occurring shortly after germ layer differentiation. The organization of the central nervous system is derived from a well-defined neuroectoderm, the neural plate, which is located in the dorsal midline of the embryo. It appears that neural plaque is produced by signals that locally inhibit or avoid inducing non-neural differentiation. Examples of such signals come from bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) and other molecules of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF beta) superfamily, which direct epidermal differentiation when gastrulation

Neuronal fate is inhibited by BMP. In the body, several molecules that promote neuronal differentiation, such as noggin, follistatin, and chordates, are antagonists of BMP. Although noggin antagonizes BMP signaling, it is not necessary for the induction of early neurogenesis, because knockout mice are normal at embryonic day 8.5 (although they die at birth). These data indicate that other BMP antagonists can compensate without Noggin expression and illustrate the concept of redundant signaling pathways during embryonic development. The role of BMP is further regulated by the presence of two ubiquitously expressed BMP receptors, BMPR1A and BMPR1B, which do not appear until the 9th day of the embryo. The expression of BMPR1A induces the expression of BMPR1B, and this process is inhibited by the sonic hedgehog. The further development of the neural lamina into mature cells of the central nervous system is clearly and precisely regulated by spatial and temporal differentiation patterns. The growth and proliferation of cells in the early neural plate eventually lead to the closure of the developing nerve sulcus and the formation of a hollow neural tube. The neural tube cavity produces the ventricular system and the epithelial layer contains stem cells that will produce neurons and glial cells of the central nervous system. One of the central problems in developmental neurobiology is the mechanism by which a simple neuroepithelium (only one cell thick) can produce the various cell types that make up the mammalian central nervous system. Currently, there is a large number of studies that have determined the internal factors and external soluble signals that affect this regional pattern and specific neural differentiation. An example of this invertebrate neurogenesis is the transmission of dorsal and ventral patterns of opposing soluble signals: sonic hedgehog (Shh) and BMP antagonists, chordin and noggin, are secreted from the bottom plate, while other signals are emitted from the top plate. Form a gradient. Signal concentration. The precise concentration and ratio of each signal in the neural tube is critical to the development of specific neuronal phenotypes at different points along the gradient. For example, there is a concentration-dependent induction of model genes in progenitor cells encoding homeodomain transcription factors. These differences in expression patterns produce neuronal clusters with different division and differentiation patterns (and ultimately different phenotypes) along the dorsal-ventral axis of the plaque. In humans, the neural tube is formed during the third and fourth weeks of pregnancy. Initially, the neuroepithelial lining consisted of a single layer of neural stem cells with similar morphology. These cells then divide symmetrically to enrich the pool of NSCs or divide asymmetrically to produce a more differentiated progeny from which neurons and mature cells of the glial mass line develop. Although the BMP family of molecules may be involved again, the signals that determine symmetric or asymmetric division are not yet fully understood. 

Retroviral marker studies have been used to identify dividing cells in the ventricular region. Approximately 48% of the labeled cells remained in the colonies in the ventricular zone, indicating self-renewal at this site. In humans and other mammals, the active proliferation of such progenitor cells is likely to be balanced by apoptosis to maintain a stable population, but the exact mechanism has not been determined. As development continues, neurons migrate, partly guided by radially oriented glial processes, and the size of the ventricular area decreases. Neural stem cells are still attached to the basal layer. It has been shown that these cells can divide asymmetrically, and the more differentiated offspring migrate from the ventricular area to the overlying cortex. By obtaining specific phenotypic markers, these cells can divide further and distinguish them from neural stem cells. During CNS development, the temporal pattern causes oligodendrocytes to generate neuronal cell types earlier. In the spinal cord, these two cell populations appear to be produced from a common precursor, and the final decision of fate depends on external signals and specific patterns of transcriptional activation. There are two main types of transcription factors that can determine the fate of neurons or the glia. These are homeodomain factors, an example is NKx2.2, and the basic helix loop helix family of transcription factors, including Olig1 and Olig2. The expression of Olig transcription factors is regulated by external signals (such as Shh), and their expression has been shown to clearly define cells as oligodendrocytes. However, in mice, Olig1 and Olig2 are expressed from E9, long before the presence of oligodendrocyte precursors. At this early stage, Olig2 is known to be the core of neuronal development in specific areas of the ventral spinal cord and is found in cells that can track the fate of motor neurons. The importance of Olig2 in neurodevelopment has been demonstrated in functional gain experiments. As development proceeded, the expression of Olig1 and Olig2 persisted and began to overlap with the homeodomain transcription factor NKx2.2. These doubly positive progenitor cells migrate from the ventral midline and mature into oligodendrocytes. Olig1 and Olig2 have been developed in double-mutant mice. These animals lack oligodendrocytes and also have a considerable loss of motor neurons. In the Olig1 / Olig2 double mutant, the offspring of stem cells in the pMN region of the developing spinal cord generally develop into motor neurons, then oligodendrocytes, but form V2 interneurons and then astrocytes. These results indicate that the expression of the combination of transcription factors determines the fate of the stem cell bank in the developing embryo. However, this does not rule out the existence of more restrictive dividing cell populations. The expression of proglia transcription factors can be regulated by cell surface receptors such as gaps. The jagged1 (notched ligand) signal of neurons has been shown to inhibit the phenotype of oligodendrocytes. Presumably, when the number of neurons is sufficient, jagged1 is down-regulated, and a signal from the original oligodendrocytes (one of which may increase electrical activity) triggers myelination. Once the neural precursor determines the fate of the oligodendrocyte lineage, the last step of honey-forming cell formation needs to exist.

3. Conclusion

All in all, corticogenesis from mouse ESCs shows a setup collection of parent-of-beginning articulation and DNA methylation of engraved loci. This model could be utilized dependably to unwind the atomic components engaged with choosing the communicated parental allele with regard to engraving during the cortical turn of events. Our discoveries likewise give support to utilize ESCs to demonstrate cortical turn of events and for drug screening. The in vitro corticogenesis framework could be an integral asset to pinpoint sedates that de-curb the quieted parental allele in specific mind sicknesses related to irritated IG articulation or to gauge the effect of ecotoxic compounds on the epigenetic marks and the advancement of cortical cells. The cerebral cortex creates through the organized age of many neuronal subtypes, yet the systems included stay hazy. Here we show that mouse undeveloped undifferentiated organisms, refined with no morphogen except for within the sight of a sonic hedgehog inhibitor, summarize in vitro the significant achievements of cortical turn of events, prompting the successive age of a different collection of neurons that show the most notable elements of veritable cortical pyramidal neurons. When joined into the cerebral cortex, these neurons foster examples of axonal projections relating to a wide scope of cortical layers, yet in addition to exceptionally explicit cortical regions, specifically visual and limbic regions, subsequently showing that the character of a cortical region can be determined with no impact from the mind. The disclosure of natural corticogenesis reveals new insight into the instruments of neuronal particular and opens new roads for the demonstrating and treatment of neural disorder.

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About the author

Harsheel Dhruva

Harsheel is currently a Senior at Irvington High School in Fremont, California. Growing up in the Bay Area, he is very interested in the natural sciences and the potential of discovery from advancing technology. He is pursuing studies in Neuroscience and Biotechnology in hope of pioneering his own research in the future and create technology to improve the human condition. Outside of his study, Harsheel loves completing challenging physical activity or listening to music whenever he gets the chance, and is always happy to read something new.

The post Exploring Corticogenesis: Pluripotent Stem Cells into Cerebral Operations appeared first on Exploratio Journal.

1.Introduction

Lightning rods, mostly made of copper, is a structure that protects buildings from being damaged by attracting flashes through electric-magnetic force and guide the current to the ground. After learning a bit about electricity and experiencing a night of thunder and lightning, I intend to explore how lightning rods work. Therefore, in this presentation, I will first introduce the historical research on lightning rods, and then explain how lightning rods work in general using electrostatic principles and some easy-to-understand analogies. I will then write a program to calculate the effective range of the lightning rod based on the Monte Carlo technique and finally propose a lightning protection solution in conjunction with the 3D street view.

2. The History of Lightning Rod

2.1 Franklin Kite Experiment

In 1746, Franklin turned his home into an electrical laboratory after occasionally discovering the electrical experiments of other scientists, and in a letter he described receiving an electric shock as “a numbing sensation from the beginning to the end”.

In 1747, thanks to Franklin’s discoveries, people stopped using glassy and resinous to describe electricity. They began to use positive and negative electricity.

In 1749, Franklin began to make analogies between lightning and batteries, and from then on lightning became palpable. He explained by analogy the bifurcation in lightning, the color of the lightning, and the deafening sound, and was determined to prove that lightning and electricity were directly related. in 1750, he began to focus his research on the protective devices for lightning. This was man’s first step toward the lightning rod

Fifteen years later, Franklin’s close friend recorded in his diary Franklin’s famous kite experiment. He took the risk of using a kite to try to get up close and personal with lightning. He even tied a key to the kite in order to attract an electrical charge. Even though the string of the kite was already made of insulating silk, this was still a very risky act considering the strength of the lightning bolt could even make the insulator relatively conductive. The conclusion of this experiment was that the key was seen to receive the electric charge brought by the lightning, and Franklin thus proved that lightning is electricity.

2.2 Tip Lightning Rod or Round-end Ones?

Almost simultaneously with the kite experiment, Franklin realized the fact that iron needles can conduct electricity, and tried to integrate this into the “lightning rod” invention. In his diary, he envisioned, “Could there be a way to protect people from sudden lightning strikes by inserting thin needles directly into clouds and pulling the electricity out of them before the lightning strikes the ground?”

Franklin focused on elevating the tip of the lightning rod, while Benjamin Wilson, a member of the Royal Court circle of George III, believed that the pointed lightning rod would attract lightning (and this property remained unchanged and became the main principle of the modern lightning rod) and was not as safe as the round-headed lightning rod. Most scholars at the time also supported Benjamin Wilson’s view, so much so that this eventually turned into a political showdown, with proponents of Franklin’s lightning rod being falsely accused of “trying to establish their own political group in England. The war between science and politics officially ended when an East India Company was struck by lightning, and Franklin’s spiked design is still used today.

2.3 Three primary Modern lightning rods

2.3.1 Early Streamline Emmision (ESE)

ESE systems are more similar to conventional lightning rods. They are designed to trigger early initiation of upward flow, which increases the effective protection range. This discharge trigger increases the probability of triggering a “streamline” discharge at or near the tip of the rod as the ionized “leader” approaches. 

2.3.2 Charge Transfer System (CTS)

The CTS is characterized by its designated protection zone. It is the only system that deters lightning strikes, rather than encouraging them. CTS technology is based on existing physical and mathematical principles. The CTS collects the induced charge from the thunderstorm clouds in the area and transfers it to the surrounding air via an ionizer, thereby reducing the electric field strength in the protected area.  The resulting reduction in the potential difference between the site and the clouds inhibits the formation of upward currents and thus reduces electric shocks.

2.3.3 Dissipation Array System (DAS)

DAS is a special type of CTS. Based on the “protected area” of CTS, DAS can completely isolate a facility from direct lightning strikes during a thunderstorm by releasing the induced charge within the protected area to 55% of its pre-installation level in relation to its surroundings. When the electric field is reduced, the upward current does not get enough energy, and it is the connection of the upward and downward currents that is required for lightning to occur. Without energy, the connection cannot be made, so lightning cannot be generated.

3. The working principle of the lightning rod

3.1 Electron distribution

3.1.1 Electrons in the earth’s crust

Before asking how lightning rods come into use, let’s first examine the function of electrons that makes lightning occurs. Before we go into how lightning rods work, let’s take a look at how electrons work to cause lightning. To begin with, the ground’s surface is made up of positive charges because the dipole cloud produces an electric field that forces electrons to flow to the earth’s core. The earth’s crust is plainly devoid of negatively charged electrons, resulting in a positively charged ground. Colors have been employed to depict the phase cancellation process, with yellow indicating negative charges and blue representing positive charges. The green hue created by combining blue and yellow is neutral, but the absence of either color gives it a bluish/yellowish appearance.

The positive charge upon the ground produces an electric field between the earth and the clouds, resulting in a negative charge covering the bottom of the clouds. And this electric field can reach 400,000 volts, creating a powerful electric field that lingers in the atmosphere. The procedure of positive and negative charge exchange in the clouds is essentially like an ion engine that repels the negative charge of the entire planet to the opposite side, according to the principle that different charges attract and the same charges repel.

We all know that when the electric field’s dipole reaches a particular level, clouds unleash lightning, which neutralizes the charge at the cloud’s bottom compared to the ground, and then the clouds repeat the process to rebuild the potential difference in the form of an exponential equation. Here’s a visual representation of this.

The time it takes to recharge is known as the resetting time, and we use it to determine the power of the ion pump described before, for which we have data of around 5 seconds. I=Q/T. When the experiment is replaced, the result is a cloud with a charge of -20C and a resetting time of 5 seconds.

Despite the fact that 4 amps may appear to be a little quantity, comparable to double the current of a mobile phone charger (2A) or the current used in street lights (4A), it will inflict a great deal of damage due to the fact that it is released from a very small hole.

3.1.2 Electrons in clouds

Clouds that carries lightning consists soft hail particles and ice particles. Soft hails has more weight than ice particles, therefore they fall to the bottom during a thunderstorm while the small crystals were uplifted to the top. This falling process allowed negatively charged hails stay at the bottom(6-8km) and positively charged ice floats to the upper part of the cloud to 10km.

3.1.3 Generation of lightning

There are three major hypothesis about how lightning comes into place. 

• The electric field inside a stormy cloud is far higher that what has been calibrated. 

• Lightning is created via hydrometeors, which means water particles in the cloud
• Energetic runaway electrons initiate the lightning.

 Because the overactive electrons (hypothesis 3) in the above figure are hydrometeors (hypothesis 2), ice crystals and water droplets traveling through the cloud, and the situation presented by hypothesis 2 usually boosts the electric field strength by a large margin, due to the equation of Coulomb’s law, these three points are actually interconnected.

It can be found that the electric field strength is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. Thus overactive electrons are in between many electrons of different charges, causing a huge electric field and thus the birth of lightning.

Most lightning is intra-cloud lightning, while lightning that occurs outside of clouds is divided into four main types, two from the ground to the thunderclouds, which are beyond the scope of this report, and two from the thunderclouds to the ground. One of them is downward lightning negatively-charged leader caused by a negative charge at the bottom of the cloud and a positive charge for activation, and the other is downward lightning positively-charged leader caused by a negative charge leading from the positive charge at the top of the cloud connected to the ground charged leader.

3.2 Lightning propagation methods

The negative step leader, as its name suggests, will extend the length of the leader channel by step propagation. In the study of lightning pathways, early studies based on photography were skewed because some of the steps were too tiny to be seen with the human eye. The multiple-station dE/dt technique was utilized by J. Howard, M.A. Uman, C. Biagi, D. Hill, V.A. Rakov, and D.M. Jordan in 2011 to localize each step. When Step brings the lightning to the ground, the length charge is around 10^-3C/m, and the earth sends a return stroke to contact with it, resulting in lightning. TThis generally happens in the conductor nearest to the elevation, since lightning, like an item in an automated pathfinding system, will want to walk on the side with the least “resistance,” that is, the side with the quickest potential reduction movement. Because the charges at the ground and at the bottom of the cloud are generally different, the ground attracts the leader in this scenario.

3.3 How do conductors work?

 A conductor is a substance that electrons are relatively free to move compared to the insulators, which is the property needed to create the lightning rod–any net charge resides on the surface because ρ=0 inside a conductor according to Gauss’s law. So that negative charges are attaching on the surface of the lightning rod, making it easy to be strike. The reason is, usually a ground is conductive and there are negative charges throughout the ground. When you put a conductor such as a metal on the ground, the electrons of the ground moved to the metal, and the protons in the metal moved to the ground until the metal and the ground are equipotential and the metal and the ground can be regard as a system because of the formula E = -⊽ V , Where E represents the electric field and it equals the negative product of divergence of electric potential. When the system is a closed loop the divergence is 0 so that there is no electric field and electrons are static again. The metal can then be seen as a whole with the ground. This reasoning is also valid for conductive buildings and lightning rods, which become more vulnerable to lightning strikes as if they were a mountain range raised on the natural landscape.

What will the lightning rods do to the lightning that it had intercepted? When lightning occurs, the lightning rod can attract the discharge channel of lightning, so that the lightning current flows from the lightning rod into the earth’s land, avoiding huge currents to cause damage to buildings, equipment, trees or injury to people or animals that happen to walk above the ground.

4. The effective area of lightning rods.

4.1 Monte Carlo Technique

Abhay Srivastava calculated the protection of the lightning rods by applying a mathematic model conducting rod using Monte Carlo technique. It is a computer simulated model that randomized the distribution of lightning strokes. It assumes a concave lateral surface of the cone, using the concept of striking distance  in Golde’s formula, where d_s means the striking distance, A=10 and σ = .65  are constants.

 As the graph suggests, it initialized the sky with height k, the starting point of the lightning as h0, which will randomly stepping down towards the ground until it sees a postive charged object in its detecting sphere, which is assigned H_n. H_n-1 and H_n-2 are the last two steps from the striking point, and each point in this graph is given a three dimension coordinate.

The author assumes that the cube is 100*100*1000, and that a Cumulonimbus Cloud capable of storing lightning has a height of 500-16,000 meters.

The lightning will begin at a random location at the maximum height,1000m.

int[][] origin=new int[Math.random()*101][Math.random()*101];

In 5% to 80% range of the striking distance it generate some random variables to select the step length of leader.。Then it designate two angels  of the spherical polar coordinates: the inclination angle α lying between π/2  and 3π/2 and the azimuthal angle β lying between 0 and 2π. 

The mathematic formula is as follow. Iteration in Java should be used to infer where the lightning will strike. The loop terminates when the program determines that the lightning leader has reached the monitoring range, which is simulated as a sphere of radius 20m.

/*

*Precondition: it checks every step of the lightening

*Postcondition: true means that the lightning has successfully been 
*intercepted, and therefore will not be accounted as lightenings that have 

*caused damage.

*/

Public boolean inRegion(Object leader,int r){

if(Math.sqrt(Math.pow(leader.getx()-rod.getx(),2)+Math.pow(leader.gety()-rod.gety(),2)+Math.pow(leader.getz()-rod.getz(),2)<=r)}

//Euclidean distance

return true;

return false;

}

Then comes the main program for generating the path, written according to the following mathematical equation.

public int[][] stepProcess(int[][] before,Object leader,int r){

int[][] after=int[][] before;

I=leader.getx();

j=leader.getz();

K=leader.gety();

while(k!=0&&!inRegion(leader,r)){

i=i+r*Math.sin( )*Math.cos(β);

j=j+r*Math.sin( )*Math.sin(β);

k=k+r*Math.sin( );

}

if(inRegion(leader,r)){

return before;

}

else{

after[i][j]=after[i][j]+1;

return after;

}

//the higher the number in the array is, the more dangerous is the area

}

After running the program, I tested 1000 times, assuming 10 strikes per year in this area, which would be all the lightning this virtual area has suffered in 100 years, and drew a graph of the conclusions drawn, where the yellow area represents relative safety(have been struck once), green represents absolute safety, and red represents danger(more than once).

 4.2 Real Life Application

In the 3D street view of Gaudet Map, I intercepted a dense map of high-rise buildings of about 1000*1000 and used the model for the simulation of lightning rod placement. It is assumed that all the buildings need protection, but we can ignore the open space. Here are the before-after graph of the map. When lightning rods were applied in that area, it meant to make sure every building to stay in the green or yellow circle of fig 12/13, which take the height of the lightning rods, r, as a variable and execute the program.

5. Reference List

1.“Modern Lightning Protection Lightning Rods with Lightning Eliminators.” Edited by LEC By admin, LEC, 19 Sept. 2018, www.lightningprotection.com/lightning-rods-are-old-new-lightning-protection-part-3/. 

2. J. Howard, M.A. Uman, C. Biagi, D. Hill, V.A. Rakov, D.M. Jordan, Measured close lightning leader-step electric-field-derivative waveforms, J. Geophys. 

Res. 116 (2011) http://dx.doi.org/10.1029//2010JD015249. 

3. E.P. Krider, C.D. Weidman, R.C. Noggle, The electric field produced by lightning stepped leaders, J. Geophys. Res. 82 (1977) 951–960.

4. Srivastava, Abhay, and Mrinal Mishra. “Lightning Modeling And Protection Zone Of Conducting Rod Using Monte Carlo Technique – ScienceDirect.” Lightning Modeling And Protection Zone Of Conducting Rod Using Monte Carlo Technique – ScienceDirect, Www.sciencedirect.com, 13 June. 2013, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0307904X13003478?via%3Dihub.

“Franklin’s Lightning Rod | The Franklin Institute.” The Franklin Institute, Www.fi.edu, 8 March. 2014, https://www.fi.edu/history-resources/franklins-lightning-rod.

5. Godwin, Ian . “Franklin Letter To King Fans Flames Of Lightning Debate › News In Science (ABC Science).” Franklin Letter To King Fans Flames Of Lightning Debate › News In Science (ABC Science), Www.abc.net.au, 26 March. 2003, https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2003/03/26/816484.htm.

6. M. Vargas, H. Torres. On the development of a lightning leader model for tortuous or branched channels – Part II: model description

7. J. Electrostat., 66 (2008), pp. 489-495

8. M.A. Uman, The Lightning Discharge, Academic Press, London, 1987, 376 pages, revised paperback edition, Dover, New York, 2001. 

9. K. Berger, Blitzstrom-Parameter von Aufwärtsblitzen, Bull. Schweiz. Elektrotech. Ver. 69 (1978) 353–360.

About the author

Douyun (Winnie) Shi

Winnie is a Physics learner at the Starriver Bilingual School in Shanghai, China.

The post How do lightning rods work? appeared first on Exploratio Journal.

Abstract

This paper investigates why the mask compliance rates were significantly higher in Taiwan than in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic. This distinction can primarily be represented by an individualist vs. collectivist mindset, associated with Western and Eastern countries, respectively. Mask wearing was influenced by collectivism; Taiwan’s proximity to the 2003 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) epidemic and the subsequent policies implemented; cultural norms; psychological factors including higher risk attitude, sensitivity to social norms, and compliance with personal surveillance; and demographics including race, political ideology, and social class. Mask wearing is negatively associated with infection rates but is not fact based or logical: multiple psychological and cultural factors contribute to this compliance variability. Therefore, those that don’t comply are not purely defiant; individualists and collectivists just have a different belief system in what they value and how they behave. As a paper that explores reasons for noncompliance, from a public policy perspective, the message in compliance requests must be tailored to a specific belief system that serves an individual and group’s best interest while respecting personal values.

Keywords: COVID-19, mask-wearing, culture, individualist vs. collectivist, psychological factors

Why Mask Compliance Differed in the United States and Taiwan During the COVID-19 Pandemic: How Individualist vs. Collectivist Cultures Respond in Uncertain Times

COVID-19, a disease caused from SARS-CoV-2 virus, first detected in Wuhan, China, in December 2019, has been a test of responding to health regulations. Common symptoms include cough, fever, chills, loss of taste and smell, just to name a few. Most cases are mild, with symptoms persisting a few days, but some cases are very severe, requiring hospitalization. The virus has ravaged through borders and taken the lives of millions worldwide. Even though the severity of the pandemic varied by country and demographics, the COVID-19 pandemic was an experience that everyone dealt with. However, the responses, attitudes, and behaviors of the citizens of different countries shed light on how people deal during times of uncertainty. Two contrasting examples include the United States and Taiwan. These two countries have significant differences in mask wearing compliance, defined as wearing a mask when in close contact (within 6 feet) of non household members (Key, 2021).

In a literature search of studies on the mask compliance rates between Eastern and Western cultures, there were multiple studies on the compliance rates and reasoning behind this behavior in Western countries, but limited studies in Eastern countries. This would suggest that because the compliance rates are so high in Eastern countries, researchers aren’t conducting studies on why people complied or how to get people to comply, instead they’re more interested in why people DON’T comply.

According to a study conducted by the University of Southern California’s Dornsife Center for Economic and Social Research, approximately 83% of Americans agree that masks are an effective way to protect themselves from contracting Americans report actually wearing masks when in public places or in close contact with members not of the same household (Key, 2021). Another study found that 64% of Americans that report not wearing a mask responded, “It is my right as an American to not wear a mask” or “It is uncomfortable.” (Vargas & Sanchez, 2020).

The Taiwanese government, on the other hand, instituted a mask mandate with a fine between $100-500 USD for noncompliance (Ministry of Health and Welfare, n.d.; Ministry of Health and Welfare, n.d.). However, there were some reports of non-compliance in some cities in Taiwan. For instance, 604 fines were given in Kaohsiung within 1.5 days (Zheng, 2021) and 848 fines given in Taichung within 2 months (Hong, T. & Lǚ, Z., 2021). Both cities have a population of around 2.7 million, so based on this statistic it can be speculated that the non-compliance rate in Kaohsiung and Taichung is about 0.02% which is still significantly lower than the approximately 50% noncompliance rate in the United States. This finding raises questions on why there is such a big disparity.

The United States has over 330 million people with diverse backgrounds, socioeconomic levels, and beliefs. When the pandemic hit, those outside of the United States saw how a high-income country like the United States dealt with unprecedented circumstances. As of October 2021, the US has over 43 million confirmed cases and 688,000 deaths (World Health Organization, 2021).

Conversely, Taiwan is a densely populated island off the coast of Mainland China with over 23 million people. Due to its proximity to China, where the virus originated, and constant air travel to and from, Taiwan was expected to have the 2nd highest number of cases. However, this was proved to be incorrect. Taiwan along with other countries like Singapore and New Zealand were able to implement policies and community-based preventative measures to slow the rate of transmission and infection rates. By April 2020, the local transmission was at zero (The Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University, 2021).It stayed that way for about a year. When comparing infection and mortality rates, as of October 2, 2021, the confirmed cases per million people in Taiwan and the United States is 680 and 131,020, respectively. The confirmed number of deaths per million people in Taiwan and the United States in 35 and 2,103, respectively (Ritchie et al., 2020). These statistics illustrate the significant contrast in the severity of the pandemic in these two countries with the US infection rate about 200 times that of Taiwan and the US mortality rate about 60 times that of Taiwan. Why is there such a major difference? How did this happen? What lessons can other countries learn and what do the actions by Taiwan tell us about their attitudes and cultural norms?

Specific factors that can explain why the Taiwanese and Americans responded differently to the pandemic lie mainly in cultural differences. These distinctions include Taiwan’s past experience with SARS, established social norms, different healthcare systems and access to resources, an individualist vs. collectivist mindset that serves as the foundation for psychological factors, and diversity in the population.

Past Experience with SARS: Proximal vs. Distal Threat

Taiwan had a greater proximal distance than the United States did to the SARS epidemic in 2003. General psychological principles suggest that first-hand experience has a greater impact on someone than watching from far away. From Taiwan’s experience with SARS, the government put policies in place for controlling another global health crisis, such as universal mask-wearing, quarantine requirements instituted in February 2020, closing down borders to foreigners in March 2020, and contact tracing systems after the first identified case in China (Taiwan Centers for Disease Control, 2020). However, Americans had no prior experience with a pandemic to this level. Given Taiwan’s past experience in dealing with a health care crisis, the Taiwanese were more familiar than Americans were with healthcare recommendations when these preventative measures were put in place to curb the spread of COVID-19. Additionally, in the beginning of the pandemic, Americans were not directly involved or affected by the pandemic because of its origin in China. This feeling was bolstered by Trump’s rhetoric calling COVID-19 the China virus, resulting in some Americans believing that they could not get the virus because they had limited a relationship with China. For instance, they weren’t Chinese or planning on visiting China soon.

Differences in the Governmental Leadership

Health Care Services

Another reason is the difference in access to health care services. In the United States, there is no universal health care. Universal health care ensures that all citizens have access to health care services when they need it without financial burden. About 8% of the US population is uninsured (Keisler-Starkey & Bunch, 2020). Given the dozens of insurance companies, including in the public and private sectors, Americans pay different fees, resulting in the fragmented health care system that provides them varying degrees of access to certain medical services. The average annual health insurance in the United States is $5,940. This number fluctuates given location and different insurance tiers. Some plans can reach an upward annual cost of $8000 (Price, 2021).

Taiwan, on the other hand, has the National Health Insurance (NHI) System which provides universal health care to 99% of the population. The NHI provides citizens with “SMART” cards, which store a patient’s medical history and records.

After the first confirmed COVID case was identified in China, Taiwan took strict actions to prevent the transmission to its island, given the frequent flights between Mainland China and Taiwan. Taiwan already had a public health agency, the Central Epidemic Command Center (CECC), instituted after Taiwan’s experience with SARS in 2003. The CECC responded to the COVID-19 outbreak and followed pre-established protocols to control a pandemic and had access to other data from various government agencies.

On January 20, 2020, when the CECC was activated, patients’ medical history from the “SMART” cards was integrated with their travel history and data. From there, a system categorized each citizen into high risk or low risk for contracting the virus. High-risk individuals were those who had traveled to high-risk areas, such as Wuhan, and low-risk individuals included those who had not traveled abroad and had no preexisting health condition. After this integrated information was stored on a citizen’s “SMART” card, low-risk individuals were ordered to buy a week’s worth of masks and could live normal lives. High-risk individuals, on the other hand, were sent into a two-week quarantine after which they could join everyone else (Wang et al., 2020; Vox, 2021). Quarantines as such were effective because it controlled the spread and didn’t rely on quarantining only symptomatic individuals, as asymptomatic individuals have a high chance of transmitting the virus before developing symptoms, if they develop symptoms (Summers et al, 2020).

Taiwan also banned foreigners from entering and in March 2020, the CECC categorized everyone flying into Taiwan to be considered high risk so they all had to undergo isolation quarantine. To make sure no citizens left their quarantine facility, the CECC tracked people’s location using cell phone data. There were also daily phone call check-ins to monitor any possible symptoms as well as occasional in-person check-ins (Vox, 2021).Taiwan also instituted a fine between NT $200,000 and NT $1,000,000 (approximately $7000 USD and $36,0000 USD) for breaking quarantine rules (Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2020).

However, studies have shown that only relying on case-based preventative measures such as quarantine and contact tracing wouldn’t have been sufficient for controlling the pandemic. Instead, population-based measures, such as wearing masks and social distancing, were useful in the initial containment of the virus (Ng et al., 2020). Taiwanese attitudes towards wearing masks and having a collectivist mindset, discussed later in the paper, also helped enforce these measures. Additionally, the then Vice President of Taiwan, epidemiologist Chen Chein-Jen, had broadcast announcements to assist citizens in population based measures such as mask wearing, frequent hand washing, and preventing mask hoarding. Similarly, the CECC set a fixed price for masks and used funds and the military to increase mask production. By January 20, 2020, when the CECC was activated, the government had 44 million surgical masks and 1.9 million N95 masks (Wang et al., 2020).With an integrated health insurance system, quarantine requirements, and resource allocation for mask production, Taiwan was organized and prepared to contain the virus.

U.S. Response to COVID-19

Compared to Taiwan’s approach, the United States’ response to the pandemic was completely different. To start off, the federal government put the responsibility of controlling the pandemic onto the state and local governments. This led to a divided nation, with different states instituting different policies, resulting largely from political ideology (Lewis, 2021).

Additionally, during the beginning of the pandemic, there was limited testing and even so, testing criteria was too high, mainly for symptomatic individuals admitted to hospitals, likely to have COVID-19 (Lewis, 2021). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) also released a flawed test, reporting that it could fail 33% of the time (Temple-Raston, 2020). Furthermore, the CDC reported that the spread of COVID-19 likely started in January/February 2020. However, the surveillance systems for detecting the virus and reports of flu-like symptoms were insufficient allowing the virus to spread undetected for more than a month (Jorden et al., 2020).

There was also mixed information from then-President Trump, government agencies including the CDC and the World Health Organization (WHO), and the behaviors from local officials. Examples include Trump’s denial of the seriousness of the virus as well as government agencies changing their message for mask guidance in part due to medical supply shortages for hospitals and health care workers (Molteni & Rogers, 2020; World Health Organization, 2020). The mask guidance during the beginning of the pandemic sent confusing messages for further encouragement of mask-wearing. Until April 2020 for the CDC and June 2020 for the WHO, these agencies only recommended masks for those experiencing symptoms, but it has now been established that the virus can also spread from asymptomatic individuals. Consequently, it creates confusing mask guidance as well as making it hard to know who and which government agency to trust.

Lastly, the US had insufficient contact tracing and quarantine policies put in place, which seen from other countries, such as Taiwan and New Zealand, had a role in attenuating the transmission (Lewis, 2021).

Individualist vs. Collectivist

One way to further understand the striking difference between these two countries is by looking at contrasting social and cultural norms. These perspectives can differ broadly and are learned distinctions in behavior imposed by cultures, through family, friends, classmates, and more. Psychologists that study cultural differences have found a distinction between Eastern and Western culture which provides insight into the difference in pandemic responses. This distinction can be represented by an individualist vs. collectivist mindset, ideas put forth by Markus and Kitayama. An individualist mindset, associated with many Western countries, puts the individual or self above the group. These individuals value and have personal independence. Collectivists, on the other hand, associated with many Eastern countries, have strong social ties and a sense of belonging to their group. Collectivists are more likely to agree that they are willing to sacrifice their own self-interests for the well-being of the group and that their happiness depends largely on the happiness of those around them. Individualists are more likely to agree that they often do their own thing and that whatever happens to them is their own doing, emphasizing the responsibility for personal well-being (Lu et al., 2021).

To illustrate the prevalence of individualist vs. collectivist cultures, in collectivist cultures, it’s more normal to see families of multiple generations living together. In the United States, a record-breaking 64 million Americans live in multi-generational households, including sizable immigrant collectivist populations. Asian and Hispanic populations, many of which are considered collectivist countries, are rapidly increasing in the US. Asians and Hispanics are more likely than whites to live in a multi-generational household, with approximately 29% of Asians and 27% of Hispanics doing so (Cohn & Passel, 2018). This sense of belonging and community from collectivist beliefs, carried over into the United States, include taking care of elderly and 1 putting others’ interests before theirs, such as potentially sacrificing personal health, commitments, or time to help out. Research suggests that collectivists are more likely to care for elderly family members as a means to strengthen family ties whereas individualists are more likely to limit caregiving and use formal social services as a means of support (Pyke & Bengtson, 1996).

This individualist and collectivist mindset can be used to understand how individual and group rights and responsibilities influenced behavior during the pandemic. For example, individual rights include the personal freedom of choosing whether or not to wear a mask and take the vaccine. To further illustrate, an individualist is more likely to say that they don’t want to wear a mask because it’s uncomfortable whereas a collectivist is more likely to agree that discomfort is not a valid excuse for going against group norms. Individual responsibility entails taking care of one’s health, through social distancing and wearing a mask. For instance, an individual wearing a mask for their personal health and not contracting COVID.

Group rights mean that being part of a collective gives access to specific privileges: a right to health care and access to masks and vaccines. Being a member of a group also implies specific behavior expectations. This can include taking the vaccine and following policies such as travel restrictions, quarantine, social distancing, mask mandates, to prevent others from possibly contracting the virus. These important distinctions highlight the different reasons individuals give in mask behavior, with individualists more likely to put themselves before the group and collectivists prioritizing group needs.

Cultural Norms

Even before policies for stopping the spread of the virus were implemented, Taiwan and many other Eastern countries had a norm for wearing surgical masks when experiencing the common cold or similar viruses to protect others and for taking care of the elderly or groups that were at higher risk (Jennings, 2021). So during a pandemic, it seemed normal if not obvious to be wearing masks in public places, on public transportation, and walking around. This mindset and behavior echoes a collectivist mindset present in many Eastern cultures.

For Americans, on the other hand, the preventative measures seemed unusual and unprecedented, since they’ve never experienced a global health crisis to this scale before. Consequently, the pandemic was an anxiety-provoking experience with changes in daily routine, with economic, financial, and health threats, as well as immense uncertainty: lots of unknowns from long-term COVID-19 effects, how to deal with variants, and confusing guidance on preventative measures from government officials and agencies. As a result, the link between behavior and curbing COVID-19 transmission might not have been as straightforward for Americans as it was for the Taiwanese based on different experiences and how the pandemic was handled. Along with the diverse backgrounds of its citizens, the United States found itself divided. As policies such as mask mandates and isolation requirements slowly rolled in, some Americans refused to follow these rules.

Collectivism Predicts Mask-Wearing

It has been well established that masks are an effective way to slow the transmission of COVID-19. Studies have also shown that there is a negative correlation between mask wearing and infection rates. As stated earlier, a USC study reported an approximate 50% mask noncompliance rate in the United States and reports of noncompliance in Taiwan predict an approximate 0.02% noncompliance rate (Key, 2021; Zheng, 2021; Hong, T. & Lǚ, Z., 2021).

Furthermore, studies have also shown that collectivism is positively correlated with mask-wearing. This holds true not only to illustrate the Taiwan vs. United States distinction, but also amongst many individualist and collectivist countries. Countries that scored higher on a reserve-coded scale of Hofstede’s individualism index (represented as a collectivism scale) such as the Philippines, Indonesia, and Thailand, had higher mask compliance rates than individualist countries that scored lower on the scale such as Sweden, The Netherlands, and Finland. These results are after controlling for other factors (e.g., political affiliation and government stringency) (Lu et al., 2021).

This is true not only when comparing the United States to other countries but stays consistent in the United States, with people in more collectivist regions (states and counties) more likely to wear a mask. For instance, states such as New Jersey, California, and Maryland scored higher on the state-level collectivism scale sourced from Vandello and Cohen (1999) and in mask compliance compared to states such as Arizona, Ohio, and Wisconsin, which scored lower on both the state-level collectivism scale and in mask compliance (Lu et al., 2021).

Masks can create physical inconvenience and be uncomfortable. As said earlier, one study found that 64% of Americans that report not wearing a mask responded, “It is my right as an American to not wear a mask” or “It is uncomfortable.” (Vargas & Sanchez, 2020). These actions follow an individualist mindset of protecting personal choice and freedom, but disregard that their actions can affect others (Stewart, 2020). Conversely, collectivists are more willing to put aside their personal inconvenience for the collective welfare and well-being (Biddlestone et al., 2020).

As mentioned previously, there is a $100-500 USD fine for not complying with mask mandates in Taiwan, along with limited reports of noncompliance (Ministry of Health and Welfare, n.d.; Ministry of Health and Welfare, n.d.). In collectivist cultures, the rules are more strict, with hefty consequences for non compliance, because the norm is an expectation to follow the policies implemented. In individualist cultures, on the other hand, the mandates are less strict and more complex and ambiguous because individualists are less likely to comply with rules that sacrifice personal freedom for the well-being and welfare of others. Cultural and personal beliefs can influence how rules are put into place and how people respond.

Additionally, in the US, there is a large divide between democrats and republicans based on their political ideology. Republicans can be seen as more individualist because they value personal freedom and limited government interference in daily personal matters whereas democrats can be seen as more collectivist because they value greater government intervention in economics affairs and a balance between orderly society and liberty. When looking at the difference between mask compliance in democrats and republicans, a striking difference is revealed. Democratically leaning Americans, aligned with collectivist values, have a higher mask-compliance rate than republican leaning counterparts, aligned with more individualist values, have a lower rate of mask compliance (Xu & Cheng, 2020).

To conclude, it is crucial to note that lower mask compliance rates in the United States is not because of Americans being defiant against preventative behaviors, but because of contrasting belief systems and pandemic unpredictability. These findings do not suggest that Americans are associated with various personality traits but instead shed light on the distinct cultural norms affecting behavior.

Psychological Factors

Personal Freedom and Surveillance

Psychological factors, supported by an individualist and collectivist mindset, can also influence mask wearing behavior. The first factor is the idea of personal surveillance. Collectivists are more likely to agree that groups can intrude on an individual’s privacy, especially if it’s for the greater good, since collectivists are more likely to sacrifice their personal freedom for the collective (Bellman et al., 2004). Individualist cultures are more likely to put themselves before the collective to protect their personal freedom, a value that the nation was founded on. This can be seen through the reactions that Americans had towards tracking devices. Before the pandemic, tech companies shared consumer location data with the government to make it easier to track the location of Americans. According to results from a survey in December 2020 conducted on American adults, 42% of the men who responded and 52% of women who responded were very uncomfortable with this (Johnson, 2020). During the pandemic, other companies, such as Google and Apple, used consumer data to track potential exposure to COVID-19. Over 60% of US adults found this COVID-19 exposure tracking tool to be very or somewhat concerning for their privacy (Johnson, 2020).

In South Korea, a collectivist country, government surveillance and tracking has been implemented even before the pandemic. For example, the government has access to credit and bank transaction records to prevent fraud. This system was then repurposed during the pandemic to track where people went, from restaurants to subways. Additionally, because 95% of adults own a smartphone, data location, which was originally used in criminal investigations, is now used for contact tracing. Surveillance footage utilized for investigative purposes and can now provide real time, to the minute, tracking of someone’s location. Koreans can also get sent text messages for outbreak updates. The use of South Korea’s established government surveillance network made it easier to ensure public health safety. Even though there was some talk about privacy concerns, there are limited reports on noncompliance, emphasizing the collectivist tendency to allow personal surveillance for public health purposes (Fendos, 2020).

Risk Attitude

Risk attitude is another psychological factor that affects mask wearing and can be explained through the individualist vs. collectivist mindset. Recent studies show that risk aversion, defined as less likely to engage in risky behaviors, was correlated with compliance to engage in protective behaviors during the pandemic. This was not only true in a pandemic setting but in general, with individuals that have higher levels of risk aversion less likely to smoke or engage in heavy drinking. (Xu & Cheng, 2021).

During a study conducted on Italians, results revealed that emerging adults were more concerned with their relatives and other individuals/community members contracting COVID-19, potentially through them being an asymptomatic carrier, than testing positive for COVID-19 themselves. This collectivist mindset was correlated with a higher perceived risk of infection (Germani et al., 2020). This perceived risk was positively associated with engaging in protective behaviors such as mask wearing and social distancing, a US study found (Duong et al., 2021).

Mask-wearing behavior has similarly been observed and studied in many Asian countries, including Taiwan’s long-standing cultural norm of wearing surgical masks when experiencing symptoms, such as a sore throat and runny nose, as a means to protect others, mentioned earlier (Jennings, 2021).The collectivist mindset and risk perception associated with mask-wearing in different regions can help to support the reasoning behind the Taiwanese mask compliance.

Additionally, as said earlier, amongst the Americans that report not wearing masks, 64% of those Americans said that they didn’t wear a mask because it was uncomfortable or that it’s their right as an American to choose not to wear a mask (Vargas & Sanchez, 2020). An individualist mindset provides reason for these attitudes and behaviors present in some individuals.

Sensitivity Towards Social Norms

The Taiwanese have strong responsiveness to social norms. There is a sense of pressure for wearing masks in subways and public areas. The community will also shame those for non-compliance. For instance, this mentality towards social norms is epitomized in what one Taiwanese said in a CNBC article, “We have this phrase in Taiwan that roughly translates to, ‘This is your country, and it’s up to you to save it’” (Farr, 2020).The government policies also add to this, with hefty fines, up to $500, for non-compliance (Ministry of Health and Welfare, n.d.; Ministry of Health and Welfare, n.d.).

These distinctions can again be supported by an individualist vs. collectivist mindset, in terms of emotional reactions. For example, one study conducted by Matsumoto, Kudoh, Scherer, and Wallbott (1988) found that Americans and Japanese experienced similar emotional reactions but Americans experienced emotions longer, with greater intensity and more bodily symptoms such as verbal reactions, lumps in the throat, breath changes. To conclude the study, more Japanese agreed that acting on these events when coping with these emotional situations was unnecessary, showing a weaker association between emotion and behavior (Scherer, Matsumoto, Wallbot, & Kudoh, 1988). The findings can be expanded out and offer an explanation to how individualists vs. collectivists in the US and Taiwan behaved in mask compliance. The Taiwanese held each other accountable and were less likely to act on their emotions if they didn’t fully agree/want to wear a mask. Americans were more likely to act and go against these mandates, as can be seen through countless protests across many states, even if they had felt similar levels of emotion towards masks as some Taiwanese did.

One of the possible explanations for this is that many of the emotions experienced are ego-focused emotions, meaning they mainly concern the individual’s internal attributes or characteristics. Some examples include anger, frustration, and pride. Therefore, it is logical that individualists are more likely to attend to and act on these emotions than collectivists are, say if they feel their personal freedom is being violated, because these ego-focused emotions are at the heart of an independent self (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Through the exploration of how psychological factors influenced mask compliance, the prevalence of an individualist vs. collectivist mindset underscores the application to attitudes and behaviors.

Differences in Diversity among Populations

The United States has great diversity with Americans having their own distinct identity, from various demographics, gender, race, ethnicity, and social groups. The United States is rapidly becoming more complex, with data estimates from the US Census Bureau showing that nearly 4 of 10 Americans identify with a race or ethnic group other than white (Frey, 2020; US Census Bureau, 2021). Some Americans then form subgroups with those of similar demographic identities, and base social behavior off of their beliefs and backgrounds.

One way of measuring ethnic diversity is based on an analysis of ethnic fractionalization, the probability that two random individuals from the same country are not from the same group (race, ethnicity, or other criteria). This can be done through Fearon’s analysis in which ethnic fractionalization is on a scale from 0 to 1, with 1 being the most ethnically diverse. When comparing the numbers on Fearon’s analysis, the United States is 0.49 and Taiwan is 0.274 (Alesina et al., 2002; Fisher, 2019).

Diversity is a descriptive factor in the individualist vs. collectivist mindset, with individualism associated with more heterogeneous cultures and collectivism associated with more homogeneous cultures. This diversity in mindset can explain why some states have higher mask compliance rates, as mentioned in the “Collectivism Predicts Mask Wearing” section (Lu et al., 2021).

]From a racial perspective, in a study conducted by USC, the group that was least likely to consistently wear a mask when in close contact with non-household members were whites, with a compliance rate of 46%. Compared to whites, other races including latinos, blacks, and others had higher compliance rates with 63%, 67%, and 65%, respectively (Key, 2021). Diversity in all demographics, from race, locale, and ethnicity, had significant contributions the way individualists and collectivists engaged in mask wearing. This emphasizes the dynamic intricacies of various societies in which no single factor can predict mask wearing.

Conclusion

Culture is an important factor in behavior that has intrigued me as someone who is mixed and spends time with those of various ethnicities, races, and social groups. When the pandemic hit, I spoke to many family and friends that had completely different views on how the virus affected them and what appropriate measures they believed should be taken. At times it was overwhelming and I sought to understand if there was an underlying cultural factor at the root of different attitudes and behaviors. I found that my relatives in Taiwan had one of the most striking contrasts compared to my relatives in the United States in the way they viewed how the government and our societies should be responding.

Since the onset of the pandemic, the infection and mortality rates have been significantly higher in the United States: the US infection rate is about 200 times that of Taiwan and the US mortality rate is about 60 times that of Taiwan (Ritchie et al., 2020). I chose mask wearing as my control factor because it is a universal way to lower the rate of transmission. From talking with my family and friends, I observed that mask-wearing was one of the most heavily debated topics.

The mask compliance rates are significantly higher in Taiwan than in the United States. Through my literature search, I found multiple demographic, cultural, and psychological factors, influenced by an individualist vs. collectivist mindset, that predicted mask wearing. Taiwan’s proximal distance to SARS in 2003 resulted in public health regulations that gave public health agencies access to patient medical and travel records for contact tracing and testing. Along with this, Eastern countries have norms for wearing masks to protect others. Race, locale, and political ideology was associated with mask wearing. Psychological factors involving higher risk attitude, sensitivity to social norms, and personal surveillance compliance were affected by a collectivist mindset. As a caveat, individualism tends to be correlated with Western countries but there is still a large percentage of Americans that do not associate with an individualist mindset. This results in greater diversity within the United States and Americans having differing views of cultural beliefs. Further, Taiwan’s cultural norms and policy preparedness proved to be significant in Taiwanese compliance with preventative measures.

At the heart of a collectivist is having compassion and taking in another perspective by wearing a mask to protect others. On the other hand, a reason individualists are not complying with mask mandates is not because of pure defiance but because they have a different belief system. For instance, for some individualists, it may be harder to conceptualize that they’re part of a collective and that their individual behavior is affecting the group.

These findings are important because it provides insights into how people react to governmental health regulations during times of uncertainty. Neither individualists nor collectivists are “better” than the other. There are specific attributes of each that may better serve during specific circumstances, such as a global health crisis, but I am not stereotyping individualists or collectivists with specific personality traits. I am not here to convince anyone to change their belief system but in global health crises it may be useful to adopt more collectivist actions while also taking steps to protect themselves. This can be achieved without taking away key components of identity and protecting personal values. One big question is how can we get people to comply without making them change their belief systems?

This paper explores the reasons behind noncompliance, so we can get insight into how to frame compliance requests for individualists and collectivists in different manners with the goal of showing that mask-wearing benefits the health of the public. For collectivists, explaining how mask-wearing benefits the group. Ironically, individualists that are not complying with mask mandates are presenting potential health risks to themselves and the group; these individuals are more likely valuing personal freedom over health. When framing compliance requests for individualists, it may help to emphasize that wearing masks acts in their own interests as well as establish the link between individual behavior and group health. These changes in reframing requests appeal to the individualist and collectivist belief systems while respecting personal values.

It is also important to note that extreme collectivism and extreme individualism can also harm self-interest. To further illustrate, extreme collectivism is primarily not taking into account individual needs and extreme individualism is solely focused on personal desires. Neither of these extremes act in one’s best interest because it fails to take into account other perspectives and people.

To conclude, in everyday experiences, it’s good to find some common ground. That way different perspectives can be acknowledged to create a more informed and dynamic view of the world. Sometimes it’s better to be an individual, sometimes it’s better to be a collectivist. In general, it’s hard to change belief systems to adopt other views but being able to empathize and understand why people are the way they are is beneficial not only in a pandemic, but in daily life.

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About the author

Alena Powell

Alena is a senior at Avenues: The World School in NYC. She is passionate about the social sciences, public policy, and global/cultural studies. Her academic interests are interdisciplinary and experiential as she hopes to continue immersion in different cultures, learning about various economic and government systems, and explore pathways to apply her knowledge through social impact.

The post Why Mask Compliance Differed in the United States and Taiwan During the COVID-19 Pandemic: How Individualist vs. Collectivist Cultures Respond in Uncertain Times appeared first on Exploratio Journal.

Abstract

Purpose: The purpose of this investigation was to determine if different genres of music had an effect on heart rate.

Procedure: Firstly, please go to a quiet room with all required materials, then record initial heart rate on google form using the heart rate monitor. After this, please connect headphones to the device and set volume to medium setting. Then please start to listen to the song given in the google form’s description, and at the halfway mark of the song, please record your heart rate on google form using the heart rate monitor. After finishing the song, please record the final heart rate in google form using the heart rate monitor.

Conclusion: After analyzing the data, the result was consistent with what the hypothesis assumed. When looking at the initial, ongoing, and final heart rates for classical music, 100% of the volunteers recorded a lower ongoing and final heart rate when compared to the initial heart rate. When looking at rock music, 60% of the volunteers recorded a lower ongoing and final heart rate when compared to the initial heart rate, while the other 40% recorded higher ongoing and final heart rates when compared to the initial heart rate.

Safety Sheet and Endorsements

All the volunteers in this experiment were asked to listen to music while recording their initial, ongoing, and final heart rates. Therefore, There are no safety concerns in this experiment.

Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge Mr. Golab for helping through the entire process of my research and for helping me understand how to do proper research at a higher standard. I would like to thank Dr. Rohit Loomba for helping to advise me and guide me through my research project. I would also like to thank all the people who helped during the testing stage of my experiment for volunteering and taking the time out of your day to help me in my research. I would like to thank my family for helping motivate me to push through with my work. I would also like to thank them for recommending me to take up this program.

Purpose

The purpose of this investigation was to determine if different genres of music had an effect on the heart rate of a human.

Hypothesis

If classical music was chosen to lower heart rate, it would be more successful in doing so when compared to rock music

Rationale: Classical music triggers certain emotions through different dopamine levels to order the brain to send messages through the nervous system to the sinus node telling it to either lower or increase the heart rate.

Review of Literature

Music is a big part of people’s lives and sometimes affects us in ways that we don’t always notice. With the growing popularity of listening to music while doing various activities like reading, exercising, etc, the question that comes to mind which music is best? The answer depends on the activity that is being accomplished. This is because different genres of music can have different effects on your body, like heart rate, blood pressure, and others. The purpose of
this investigation, then, is to determine if different genres of music have an effect on heart rate. This will be done in order to inform the people on how certain genres can be beneficial in certain circumstances.

According to an article from the National Library of Medicine, “How Does Music Affect the Human Body,” music is known to have certain effects on different parts and physiological variables of the body. To figure out how it could have an affect on a human’s heart rate, we need to examine how the body regulates the heart rate in different circumstances. According to royalsocietypublishing.org, the brain controls the heart rate directly through the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. These two systems are a part of a bigger nervous system
called the autonomic nervous system. According to an article from byjus.com titled Difference Between Sympathetic And Parasympathetic, the sympathetic nervous system is used to respond to perceived dangers, and the parasympathetic nervous system is used as a calming mechanism. These systems release different hormones that either accelerate or decelerate the heart rate. The sinus node is the pacemaker on the heart’s right atrium that releases electric impulses which start each beat of the heart. In an article from medicinenet.com, they say that the autonomic nervous system is said to directly control the sinus node which starts the cardiac cycle. The article goes on to say that the sinus node initiates the cycle by “generating electrical impulses and conducting them throughout the muscle of the heart, stimulating the heart to contract and pump blood.”.

It makes sense then, how the brain can send a message through the nervous system towards the sinus node to either speed up or slow down the heart rate. Music affects the heart rate of a human being because certain types of music trigger certain emotions in our body. According to dailygood.org, music can be used to peak emotions by increasing the amount of dopamine in your body. Dopamine is known as a feel good hormone, meaning that an increase in dopamine in a person’s body would make them feel very happy. Music acts as an independent variable by changing the amount of dopamine that flows through the body depending on the genre of music. Dopamine therefore can be used to change a person’s emotions depending on how much of it is used. A change in emotion can cause the brain to order different organs to act in a manner that best fits the setting that the human is in. To summarize this, music triggers a certain emotion through different dopamine levels and the brain sends messages through different nervous systems ordering the heart to change its pace.

The independent variable in this experiment are the genres of music because the genres are the variables being changed in order to get a different result from the heart rate. The dependent variable is the heart rate because the level of heart rate depends on what genre of music is being played.

In previous experimentation, an article titled, “Effects of music on systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and heart rate: a meta-analysis”, Dr. Rohit S. Loomba and Rohit Arora came to the conclusion that music has a beneficial effect in settings like emergency care units and other high anxiety environments, because it reduced heart rate, systolic, and diastolic blood pressure. This helps us understand that music does have an effect on our emotions, which in consequently has an effect on heart rate.

Other concepts that relate to the investigation could be, “What effect do different tones, tempos, and rhythms have on the entire body and the brain?” This question is similar to the different genres of music because different genres of music usually have different rhythms and beats that go along with them.

In conclusion, different genres of music cause different emotions to form based on the amount of dopamine that is produced as a result of listening to a certain genre. This then tells the brain to order certain actions from different organs to adjust to the new environment. One of these messages travel as neurons through the nervous system and go to the heart, where they order the sinus node to change the pace of the heartbeat. Based on this research, I can hypothesize that different genres of music will have an effect on heart rate and it will differ based on which genre of music is used.

Materials

• 1 heart rate monitor(or any device that can record heart rate)
• headphones
• device to play music
• A quiet room to do experiment

Procedure

1. go to a quiet room with all required materials
2. record initial heart rate on google form using the heart rate monitor
3. connect headphones to device and set volume to medium setting
4. listen to the song given in the google form’s description
5. at halfway mark of the song, record heart rate on google form using the heart rate monitor
6. after finishing the song, record final heart rate in google form using the heart rate monitor

Variables

• Independent variable: Genre of music (Rock or Classical)
• Controlled variables: gender, age, setting of location, volume, length of each song (within 30
  seconds of each other)
• Dependent variable: heart rates recorded
• Control: A comparison among the two genres of music

Results

Data Analysis: The data shows the heart rates for each song from different genres. Song 1 is rock and song 2 is classical music. Along with the heart rates, the table also shows the average heart rate for each song, the standard deviation, standard error, and 95% confidence interval. The graph shows the average for each time when listening to the song (initial, ongoing, and final). The error bars represent the 95% confidence intervals.

Statistical analysis: In the graphs, the error bars are not overlapping which means that the data is significant, which shows that different genres of music have an effect on heart rate. In this experiment, there was evidence showing that classical music causes a decrease in heart rate 100% of the time, and rock music causes an increase in heart rate 60% of the time.

Error analysis: one of the main causes of error in the experiment could have been the preference of music. Because different people prefer different types of music to others, this can cause an increase in dopamine which can affect the heart rate of a person. For example, someone who enjoys rock music would most likely have a more evident heart rate change, whereas someone who does not enjoy it or has no opinion on it would have a less evident heart rate change or a heart rate change that is opposite to the trend.

Conclusion

To conclude my research, the data suggests that different genres of music do have an effect on heart rate. The data shows this idea because classical music is shown to lower the heart rate 100% of the time, while rock music is shown to increase the heart rate 60% of the time. The data is significant because the error bars between the two graphs do not overlap. Some things that could have been done to make the data more accurate is to find test subjects that do not have a preference for a certain genre of music, and do not have a disliking for a certain genre of music.

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About the author

Rishubh Madaboosi

Rishubh is a Senior at Naperville Central High school in Naperville, Illinois. He has a passion for behavioral science and different fields involving biology. Besides his academic interests in biology and history, he enjoys playing tennis for the school team and playing clarinet in his free time.

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